Assessment Literacy and its Relevance to Teaching Experience and Academic Background among EFL Teachers in Iran

الموضوعات :

Rahim Watmani ¹ , HASSAN ASADOLLAHFAM ² , Bahram Behin ³

1 - PhD Candidate of TEFL, English Language Department, Islamic Azad University, Bonab Branch, Iran
2 - PhD in Applied Linguistics, Islamic Azad University, Bonab Branch, Iran,
3 - Associate Professor in ELT, Azarbaijan Shahid Madani University, Tabriz, Iran

تاريخ الإرسال : 04 الأربعاء , محرم, 1446 تاريخ التأكيد : 06 السبت , صفر, 1446 تاريخ الإصدار : 06 السبت , صفر, 1446

الکلمات المفتاحية: assessment literacy, assessment literacy practices, novice and experienced teachers, TEFL/non-TEFL background,

ملخص المقالة :

Teachers’ educational background and experience in classroom assessment are important factors that influence their level of assessment literacy. Despite this, few studies are reported to investigate this area. The present study aims to find differences between experienced and novice teachers with or without TEFL backgrounds regarding their assessment literacy skills. Two hundred high school teachers working in various Iranian schools with TEFL and non-TEFL backgrounds were randomly selected to participate in the current study. Chi-square (crosstabs) was applied to compare the assessment practices of the study groups. The researchers also took notes while observing the classroom assessments. The results revealed that TEFL-background teachers practiced assessment methods more significantly than the teachers with no TEFL background. Likewise, it was indicated that novice teachers practiced assessment methods and components more significantly than experienced teachers, irrespective of their educational background. The findings also indicated that high school teachers of TEFL have inadequate educational assessment literacy. Therefore, ongoing in-service training programs on educational assessment should be considered to cater to problems of low assessment literacy in Iranian high schools.

المصادر:

Alemi, M., Miri, M., & Mozafarnezhad, A. (2019). Investigating the effects of online concurrent group dynamic assessment on enhancing grammatical accuracy of EFL learners. International Journal of Language Testing, 9(2), 29-43.
Amiri, M., & Birjandi, P. (2015). Reliability and content validity of a comprehensive discourse completion test of interlanguage pragmatics for academic situations. Sino-US English Teaching, 12(9), 654-659. http://dx.doi.org/10.17265/1539-8072/2015.09.002
Arani, A. M., Kakia, M. L., & Karimi, M. V. (2012). Assessment in education in Iran. Assessment, 9(2), 101-110.
Ashraf, H., & Zolfaghari, S. (2018). EFL teachers' assessment literacy and their reflective teaching. International Journal of Instruction, 11(1), 425-436. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2018.11129a
Atay, D. (2008). Teacher research for professional development. ELT Journal, 62(2), 139-147. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccm041
Azadi, A. (2018). A study on the conceptual factors of teacher assessment literacy among ESP instructors (Unpublished master's thesis). Islamic Azad University, Electronic Branch, Tehran, Iran.
Babai Shishavan, H., & Sadeghi, K. (2009). Characteristics of effective English language teacher as perceived by Iranian teachers and learners of English. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 1(2), 130-132.
Bachman, L. F., & Palmer, A. S. (2010). Language assessment in practice. OUP.
Baniali, S. (2018). A study on Iranian experienced and novice EFL teachers’ belief and practice in teaching vocabulary (Unpublished master's thesis). North Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran.
Barnes, N., Fives, H., & Dacey, C. M. (2015). Teachers’ beliefs about assessment. In H. Fives & G. Gill (Eds.), International handbook of research on teachers’ beliefs (pp. 284-300). Routledge.
Bayat, K., & Rezaei, A. (2015). Importance of teachers’ assessment literacy. International Journal of English Language Education, 3(1), 139-146. https://doi.org/10.5296/ijele.v3i1.7260
Birjandi, P., & Tamjid, N. H. (2012). The role of self-, peer, and teacher assessment in promoting Iranian EFL learners' writing performance. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 37(5), 513-533. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2010.549204
Braden, J. P., Huai, N., White, J. L., & Elliot, S. N. (2005). Effective professional development to support inclusive large-scale assessment practices for all children. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 30(4), 63-71. https://doi.org/10.1177/073724770503000407
Barney, B. T. (2010). An examination of fourth-grade teachers' assessment literacy and its relationship to students' reading achievement [Master's thesis, East Carolina University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Brookhart, S. M. (2011). Educational assessment knowledge and skills for teachers. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practices, 30(1), 3-12. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-3992.2010.00195.x
Burry-Stock, J. A., & Frazier, C. H. (2008, March). Revision of the assessment practice inventory (APIR): A combined exploratory factor analysis and polytomous IRT approach [Paper presentation]. American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting, New York, NY, United States.
Chen, C. I. (2013). Examining psychometric dimensions of the Ages and Stages Questionnaires: Inventory: A cross-country comparison between Taiwan and the United States [Doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon]. Scholars' Bank. https://scholarsbank.uoregon.edu/xmlui/handle/1794/13115
Creswell, J. W., & Hirose, M. (2019). Mixed methods and survey research in family medicine and community health. Family Medicine and Community Health, 7(2), e000086. https://doi.org/10.1136/fmch-2018-000086
Crusan, D., Plakans, L., & Gebril, A. (2016). Writing assessment literacy: Surveying second language teachers’ knowledge, beliefs, and practices. Assessing Writing, 28, 43-56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2016.03.001
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v8n1.2000
DeLuca, C., & Klinger, D. A. (2010). Assessment literacy development: Identifying gaps in teacher candidates’ learning. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 17(4), 419-438. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2010.516643
DeLuca, C., & Volante, L. (2016). Assessment for learning in teacher education programs: Navigating the juxtaposition of theory and praxis. Journal of the International Society for Teacher Education, 20(1), 19-31.
Eckhout, T., Davis, S., Mickelson, K., & Goodburn, A. (2005). A method for providing assessment training to in-service and pre-service teachers. In D. Gutiérrez (Ed.), Proceedings of the annual meeting of the southwestern educational research association (pp. 121-132). Arnolds.
Edwards, F. (2017). A rubric to track the development of secondary pre-service and novice teachers’ summative assessment literacy. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 24(2), 205-227. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2016.1225668
Eezami, R. (2016). A study on work engagement and fulfillment of basic psychological needs among novice and experienced EFL teachers in the Iranian institutes [Master's thesis, Kharazmi University]. http://thesis.khu.ac.ir/thesis/Thesis/ThesisView.aspx?ID=100
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Eslami, Z. R., & Fatahi, A. (2008). Teachers' sense of self-efficacy, English proficiency, and instructional strategies: A study of nonnative EFL teachers in Iran. TESL-EJ, 11(4), 1-19. http://tesl-ej.org/ej44/a1.html
Falsgraf, C. (2005). Why a national assessment summit? New visions in action. National Assessment Summit, 3, 6-9.
Fard, Z. R., & Tabatabaei, O. (2018). Investigating assessment literacy of EFL teachers in Iran. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Language Research, 5(3), 91-100. http://www.jallr.com/index.php/JALLR/article/view/780
Farhady, H., & Hedayati, H. (2009). Language assessment policy in Iran. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 29, 132-141. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190509090100
Farhady, H., & Tavassoli, K. (2018). Developing a language assessment knowledge test for EFL teachers: A data-driven approach. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 6(3), 79-94.
Fathi, J., & Derakhshan, A. (2019). Teacher self-efficacy and emotional regulation as predictors of teaching stress: An investigation of Iranian English language teachers. Teaching English Language, 13(2), 117-143. https://doi.org/10.22132/tel.[phone]
Fathi, J., & Saeedian, A. (2020). A structural model of teacher self-efficacy, resilience, and burnout among Iranian EFL teachers. Iranian Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 9(2), 14-28. https://doi.org/10.22034/ijceap.2020.240130.1144
Firoozi, T., Razavipour, K., & Ahmadi, A. (2019). The language assessment literacy needs of Iranian EFL teachers with a focus on reformed assessment policies. Language Testing in Asia, 9(1), 2-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-019-0080-5
FitzGerald, J., & Mills, J. (2022). The importance of ethnographic observation in grounded theory research. Forum: Qualitative Social Research, 22(2), 2-13. http://dx.doi.org/10.17169/fqs-22.2.3810
Gatbonton, E. (2008). Looking beyond teachers’ classroom behavior: Novice and experienced ESL teachers’ pedagogical knowledge. Language Teaching Research, 12(2), 161-182. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168807086286
Hajizadeh, N., & Salahshour, N. (2014). Characteristics of effective EFL instructors: Language teachers’ perceptions versus learners’ perceptions. International Journal of Applied Linguistics and English Literature, 3(1), 202-214. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijalel.v.3n.1p.202
Inbar-Lourie, O. (2013). Language assessment literacy: What are the ingredients? Plenary speech at the 4th CBLA SIG Symposium Program' Language Assessment Literacy- LAL, Cyprus. Published in the special issue on language assessment literacy. Language Testing, 30(3), 301-307. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532213480128
James, M. (2008). Assessment and learning. In G. Havnes & M. McDowell (Eds.), Unlocking assessment: Understanding for reflection and application (pp. 20-35). Routledge.
Jannati, S. (2015). ELT teachers’ language assessment literacy: Perceptions and practices. The International Journal of Research in Teacher Education, 6(2), 26-37.
Jan-nesar, M. Q., Khodabakhshzadeh, H., & Motallebzadeh, K. (2020). Assessment literacy of Iranian EFL teachers: A review of recent studies. Journal of Asia TEFL, 17(2), 689-697. https://doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2020.17.2.17.689
Jeong, H. (2013). Defining assessment literacy: Is it different for language testers and non-language testers? Language Testing, 30(3), 345-362. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532213480334
Khezerlou, E. (2017). Professional self-esteem as a predictor of teacher burnout across Iranian and Turkish EFL teachers. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 5(1), 113-130.
Khodabakhshzadeh, H., Kafi, Z., & Hosseinnia, M. (2018). Investigating EFL teachers' conceptions and literacy of formative assessment: Constructing and validating an inventory. International Journal of Instruction, 11(1), 139-152. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2018.11110a
Lam, R. (2015). Language assessment training in Hong Kong: Implications for language assessment literacy. Language Testing, 32(2), 169-197. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532214547894
Lam, R. (2019). Teacher assessment literacy: Surveying knowledge, conceptions and practices of classroom-based writing assessment in Hong Kong. System, 81, 78-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.01.005
Lantolf, J. P., & Poehner, M. E. (2008). Dynamic assessment. In E. Shohamy & N. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education (Vol. 7): Language testing and assessment (pp. 273-284). Springer.
Latif, M. W. (2021). Exploring tertiary EFL practitioners’ knowledge base component of assessment literacy: Implications for teacher professional development. Language Testing in Asia, 11(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-021-00123-8
Looney, A., Cumming, J., van Der Kleij, F., & Harris, K. (2018). Re-conceptualizing the role of teachers as assessors: Teacher assessment identity. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy and Practice, 25(5), 442-467. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2016.1268090
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2016). Second language research: Methodology and design (2nd ed.). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
McMillan, J. H. (2000). Fundamental assessment principles for teachers and school administrators. Practical Assessment, Research and Evaluation, 7(8), 1-9. https://scholarworks.umass.edu/pare/vol7/iss1/8
McNamara, T. (2003). Tearing us apart again: The paradigm wars and the search for validity. Eurosla Yearbook, 3(1), 229-238. https://doi.org/10.1075/eurosla.3.13mcn
McTighe, J., & O’Connor, K. (2005). Seven practices for effective teaching. Educational Leadership, 63(3), 10-17.
Mellati, M., & Khademi, M. (2018). Exploring teachers’ assessment literacy: Impact on learners’ writing achievements and implications for teacher development. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 43(6), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2018v43n6.1
Mertler, C. A. (1999). Assessing student performance: A descriptive study of the classroom assessment practices of Ohio teachers. Education, 120, 285-296.
Mertler, C. A. (2002). Classroom assessment literacy inventory. Adapted from the teacher assessment literacy questionnaire (1993), by B. S. Plake & J. C. Impara, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, in cooperation with The National Council on Measurement in Education and the W.K. Kellogg Foundation.
Mertler, C. A. (2005). Secondary teachers’ assessment literacy: Does classroom experience make a difference? American Secondary Education, 33(2), 76-92.
Mertler, C. A. (2009). Teachers’ assessment knowledge and their perceptions of the impact of classroom assessment professional development. Improving Schools, 12(1), 101-113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1365480208099288
Mohammadi, A. (2020). A mixed-methods study on the teacher assessment literacy of ELT instructors versus content instructors Islamic Azad University (Unpublished master’s thesis). University of Qom, Iran.
Plake, B. S., & Impara, J. C. (1993). Teacher assessment literacy questionnaire. Nebraska-Lincoln: The National Council on Measurement in Education and the W.K. Kellogg Foundation.
Pilcher, J. K. (2001). The standards and integrating instructional and assessment practices (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 451 190).
Popham, W. J. (2014). Classroom assessment: What teachers need to know (7th ed.). Pearson Education.
Rezai, A., Alibakhshi, G., Farokhipour, S., & Miri, M. (2021). A phenomenographic study on language assessment literacy: Hearing from Iranian university teachers. Language Testing in Asia, 11(1), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-021-00124-7
Razavipour, K., Riazi, A., & Rashidi, N. (2011). On the interaction of test washback and teacher assessment literacy: The case of Iranian EFL secondary school teachers. English Language Teaching, 4(1), 156-161. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v4n1p156
Rodríguez, A. G., & McKay, S. (2010). Professional development for experienced teachers working with adult English language learners. CAELA Network Brief. Retrieved from [4](https://www.cal.org/caelanetwork/resources/professionaldevelopment.html)
Roohani, A., & Dayeri, K. (2019). On the relationship between Iranian EFL teachers' burnout and motivation: A mixed methods study. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 7(1), 77-99.
Sadeghi, K., & Khezrlou, S. (2014). Burnout among English language teachers in Iran: Do socio-demographic characteristics matter? Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 98, 1590-1598. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.577
Sanders, W., & Rivers, J. (1996). Cumulative and residual effects of teachers on future student academic achievement. http://mdk12.org/practices/ensure/tva/tva_2.html
Scarino, A. (2013). Language assessment literacy as self-awareness: Understanding the role of interpretation in assessment and in teacher learning. Language Testing, 30(3), 309-327. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532213480128
Siegel, M. A., & Wissehr, C. (2011). Preparing for the plunge: Pre-service teachers’ assessment literacy. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 22(4), 371-391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10972-011-9231-6
Stiggins, R. (1991). Assessment literacy. Phi Delta Kappan, 3(2), 534-539.
Stiggins, R. (1999). Are you assessment literate? The High School Journal, 6(5), 20-23.
Stobart, G. (2008). Testing times: The uses and abuses of assessment. Routledge.
Sun, H., & Zhang, J. (2022). Assessment literacy of college EFL teachers in China: Status quo and mediating factors. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 74, 101-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2021.101117
Tajeddin, Z., Alemi, M., & Yasaei, H. (2018). Classroom assessment literacy for speaking: Exploring novice and experienced English language teachers' knowledge and practice. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 6(3), 57-77.
Tajeddin, Z., Khatib, M., & Mahdavi, M. (2022). Critical language assessment literacy of EFL teachers: Scale construction and validation. Language Testing, 2022, 02655322211057040. https://doi.org/10.1177/02655322211057040
Tao, N. (2014). Development and validation of classroom assessment literacy scales: English as a foreign language (EFL) instructors in a Cambodian higher education setting (Publication No. 3685135) [Doctoral dissertation, Victoria University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Global.
Tavassoli, K., & Farhady, H. (2018). Assessment knowledge needs of EFL teachers. Teaching English Language, 12(2), 45-65. https://doi.org/10.22132/tel.[phone]
Taylor, L. (2013). Communicating the theory, practice and principles of language testing to test stakeholders: Some reflections. Language Testing, 30(3), 403-412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532213480337
Vitali, G. J. (1994). Factors influencing teacher’s practices in an assessment driven reform (ERIC No. ED373053).
Walters, F. S. (2010). Cultivating assessment literacy: Standards evaluation through language-test specification reverse engineering. Language Assessment Quarterly, 7(4), 317-342. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2010.510208
Wang, J. R., Kao, H. L., & Lin, S. W. (2010). Pre-service teachers’ initial conceptions about assessment of science learning: The coherence with their views of learning science. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26(3), 522-529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2009.06.015
Wang, T., Wang, K., & Huang, S. (2008). Designing a web-based assessment environment for improving pre-service teacher assessment literacy. Computers and Education, 51, 448-462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2007.05.012
Xu, Y., & Brown, G. T. (2016). Teacher assessment literacy in practice: A reconceptualization. Teaching and Teacher Education, 58, 149-162. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.05.010
Zamani, R., & Ahangari, S. (2016). Characteristics of an effective English language teacher (EELT) as perceived by learners of English. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 4(14), 69-88.