بررسی ویژگیهای آب خاکستری و روشهای بازیابی آن
الموضوعات :مسعود رضائی 1 , محمد حسین صرافزاده 2
1 - دانشجوی دکتری مهندسی محیط زیست، کرسی یونسکو در بازیافت آب، دانشگاه تهران. (مسئول مکاتبات)
2 - رئیس کرسی یونسکو در بازیافت آب، دانش‌کده مهندسی شیمی، پردیس دانش‌کده‌های فنی، دانشگاه تهران.
الکلمات المفتاحية: استاندارد, بازیافت آب, آب خاکستری, ویژگیهای فیزیکوشیمیایی, ویژگیهای میکروبیولوژی,
ملخص المقالة :
زمینه و هدف: آب خاکستری به فاضلاب تولیدی خانگی از روشویی، حمام، ماشین لباس شویی و آشپزخانه ها اطلاق می گردد که در مبدأ از فاضلاب دست شویی و توالت تفکیک شده باشد. در یک طبقه بندی می توان فاضلاب ناشی از حمام و روشویی ها را آب خاکستری روشن و فاضلاب ناشی از آشپزخانه و ماشین لباسشویی ها را آب خاکستری تیره نام نهاد. طی سالیان اخیر مطالعات گسترده ای بر روی سیستم های تصفیه آب خاکستری صورت پذیرفته است. روش بررسی: در این مطالعه سعی گردیده با استفاده از مطالعات قبلی، کیفیت آب خاکستری مورد بررسی قرار گیرد، سپس نگاهی به استانداردهای بازگردانی آب جهت مصارف مختلف شده است و در پایان مروری بر فرآیندهای نوین تصفیه آب خاکستری و مزایا و محدودیت هایشان گردیده است. یافته ها و نتایج: براساس این بررسی می توان نتیجه گیری نمود که کیفیت آب خاکستری تولیدی بسیار متغیر و کاملاً وابسته به منبع تولید می باشد. تصفیه های فیزیکی، راندمان حذف محدودی بر روی آب خاکستری دارند، لذا غالباً برای آب خاکستری روشن توصیه می شوند. روش های تصفیه شیمیایی، توانایی حذف مواد جامد معلق، پاتوژن ها و سورفکتانت ها را دارند، لکن در حذف کامل BOD ناتوان هستند. تصفیه های زیستی راندمان مطلوبی برای تصفیه آب خاکستری دارند، اما عدم تعادل مواد مغذی به عنوان یک عامل محدودکننده در این سیستم ها وجود خواهد داشت. نتیجه‌گیری: در مجموع ترکیب فرایندهای زیستی هوازی و پیش تصفیه فیزیکی و ضدعفونی به عنوان اقتصادی ترین راه جهت تصفیه آب خاکستری با بار آلودگی بالا توصیه می گردد.
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2. Ghaitidak, D. M., & Yadav, K. D. (2013). Characteristics and treatment of greywater—A review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 20(5), 2795-2809.
3. Kulabako, N. R., Ssonko, N. K. M., & Kinobe, J. (2011). Greywater Characteristics and Reuse in Tower Gardens in Peri-Urban Areas- Experiences of Kawaala, Kampala, Uganda. Open Environmental Engineering Journal, 4, 147-154.
4. Jefferson, B., Palmer, A., Jeffrey, P., Stuetz, R., & Judd, S. (2004). Grey water characterisation and its impact on the selection and operation of technologies for urban reuse. Water Science & Technology, 50(2), 157-164.
5. Li, F., Behrendt, J., Wichmann, K., & Otterpohl, R. (2008). Resources and nutrients oriented greywater treatment for non-potable reuses. Water Science and Technology, 57(12), 1901-1908.
6. Li, F., Wichmann, K., & Otterpohl, R. (2009). Review of the technological approaches for grey water treatment and reuses. Science of the Total Environment, 407(11), 3439-3449.
7. Boyjoo, Y., Pareek, V. K., & Ang, M. (2013). A review of greywater characteristics and treatment processes. Water Science & Technology, 67(7), 1403-1424.
8. World Health Organization. (2006). Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater: Policy and regulatory aspects (Vol. 1). World Health Organization.
9. Christova-Boal, D., Eden, R. E., & McFarlane, S. (1996). An investigation into greywater reuse for urban residential properties. Desalination, 106(1), 391-397.
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12. Birks, R., Colbourne, J., Hills, S., & Hobson, R. (2004). Microbiological water quality in a large in-building, water recycling facility. Water Science & Technology, 50(2), 165-172.
13. 12-Eriksson, E., Auffarth, K., Eilersen, A. M., Henze, M., & Ledin, A. (2003). Household chemicals and personal care products as sources for xenobiotic organic compounds in grey wastewater. Water sa, 29(2), 135-146.
14. Winward, G. P., Avery, L. M., Frazer-Williams, R., Pidou, M., Jeffrey, P., Stephenson, T., & Jefferson, B. (2008). A study of the microbial quality of grey water and an evaluation of treatment technologies for reuse. Ecological engineering, 32(2), 187-197.
15. Misra, R. K., Patel, J. H. & Baxi, V. R 2010 Reuse potential of laundry greywater for irrigation based on growth, water and nutrient use of tomato. Journal of Hydrology 386 (1^), 95-102.
16. Dixon, A, Butler, D., Fewkes, A. & Robinson, M. 2000 Measurement and modelling of quality changes in stored untreated grey water. Urban Water 1 (4), 293-306.
17. Al-Jayyousi OR. Greywater reuse: towards sustainable water management. Desalination
18. 2003;156(1-3):181–92.
19. Bhattacharya, P., Sarkar, S., Ghosh, S., Majumdar, S., Mukhopadhyay, A., & Bandyopadhyay, S. (2013). Potential of ceramic microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes for the treatment of gray water for an effective reuse. Desalination and water treatment, 51(22-24), 4323-4332.
20. Ramona, G., Green, M., Semiat, R., & Dosoretz, C. (2004). Low strength graywater characterization and treatmentby direct membrane filtration.Desalination, 170(3), 241-250.
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22. Pidou, M., Avery, L., Stephenson, T., Jeffrey, P., Parsons, S. A., Liu, S., ... & Jefferson, B. (2008). Chemical solutions for greywater recycling. Chemosphere,71(1), 147-155.
23. Hernández-Leal, L., Temmink, H., Zeeman, G., & Buisman, C. J. N. (2011). Removal of micropollutants from aerobically treated grey water via ozone and activated carbon. Water Research, 45(9), 2887-2896.
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25. Nolde, E. (2000). Greywater reuse systems for toilet flushing in multi-storey buildings–over ten years experience in Berlin. Urban water, 1(4), 275-284.
26. Ernst, M., Sperlich, A., Zheng, X., Gan, Y., Hu, J., Zhao, X., ... & Jekel, M. (2007). An integrated wastewater treatment and reuse concept for the Olympic Park 2008, Beijing. Desalination, 202(1), 293-301.
27. Maeda M, Nakada K, Kawamoto K, Ikeda M. Area-wide use of reclaimed water in Tokyo,
28. Japan. Water Sci Technol 1996;33(10-11):51–7.
29. Moslemi Zadeh, S. (2013). Sustainability evaluation of shared greywater recycling in urban mixed-use regeneration areas (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).
30. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). Guidelines for water reuse. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report No. EPA/625/R-04/108/September- 2004.
31. Baban, A., Hocaoglu, S. M., Atasoy, E. A., Gunes, K., Ayaz, S., & Regelsberger, M. (2010). Grey water treatment and reuse by using RBC: A kinetic approach. Desalination and water treatment, 23(1-3), 89-94.
32. Hernandez, L., Zeeman, G., Temmink, H., Marques, A., & Buisman, C. (2008). Comparison of three systems for biological grey water treatment. In Proc. IWA conference on Sanitation challenges, Wageningen, Netherlands, May (pp. 19-22).
33. Hernández Leal, L., Temmink, H., Zeeman, G., & Buisman, C. J. (2010). Comparison of three systems for biological greywater treatment. Water, 2(2), 155-169.
34. Smith, E., & Bani-Melhem, K. (2012). Grey water characterization and treatment for reuse in an arid environment. Water Science and Technology,66(1), 72.
35. Bani-Melhem, K., Al-Qodah, Z., Al-Shannag, M., Qasaimeh, A., Qtaishat, M. R., & Alkasrawi, M. (2015). On the performance of real grey water treatment using a submerged membrane bioreactor system. Journal of Membrane Science,476, 40-49.
36. Bani-Melhem, K., & Smith, E. (2012). Grey water treatment by a continuous process of an electrocoagulation unit and a submerged membrane bioreactor system. Chemical Engineering Journal, 198, 201-210.
37. Merz C, Scheumann R, Hamouri BE, Kraume M. Membrane bioreactor technology for the treatment of greywater from a sports and leisure club. Desalination 2007;215 (1-3):37–43.
38. Santasmasas, C., Rovira, M., Clarens, F., & Valderrama, C. (2013). Grey water reclamation by decentralized MBR prototype. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 72, 102-107.
39. Katukiza, A. Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C. B., Kansiime, F., & Lens, P. N. L. (2014). Grey water treatment in urban slums by a filtration system: Optimisation of the filtration medium. Journal of environmental management, 146, 131-141.
40. Friedler, E., Kovalio, R., & Ben-Zvi, A. (2006). Comparative study of the microbial quality of greywater treated by three on-site treatment systems.Environmental technology, 27(6), 653-663.
41. Sostar-Turk S, Petrinic I, Simonic M. Laundry wastewater treatment using coagulation
42. and membrane filatration. Resour Conserv Recycl 2005;44(2):185–96.
43. Assayed, A., Chenoweth, J., & Pedley, S. (2015). Assessing the efficiency of an innovative method for onsite greywater treatment: Drawer compacted sand filter–A case study in Jordan. Ecological Engineering, 81, 525-533.
44. Gross A, Shmueli O, Ronen Z, Raveh E. Recycled vertical flow constructed wetland (RVFCW) — a novel method of recycling greywater for irrigation in small communities. Chemosphere 2007;66(5):916–23.
45. Frazer-Williams, R., Avery, L., Winward, G., Jeffrey, P., Shirley-Smith, C., Liu, S., ... & Jefferson, B. (2008). Constructed wetlands for urban grey water recycling. International Journal of Environment and Pollution, 33(1), 93-109.
46. Grčić, I., Vrsaljko, D., Katančić, Z., & Papić, S. (2015). Purification of household greywater loaded with hair colorants by solar photocatalysis using TiO 2-coated textile fibers coupled flocculation with chitosan. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 5, 15-27.
47. Parsons, S. A., Bedel, C., & Jefferson, B. (2000). Chemical vs. biological treatment of domestic greywater. In Proceedings of the 9th International Gothenburg Symposium on Chemical Treatment, Istanbul.
48. Lin C-J, Lo S-L, Kuo C-Y, Wu C-H. Pilot-scale electrocoagulation with bipolar aluminium electrodes for on-site domestic greywater reuse. J Environ Eng 2005:491–5 March.
49. 45-Pidou, M., Avery, L., Stephenson, T., Jeffrey, P., Parsons, S. A., Liu, S., ... & Jefferson, B. (2008). Chemical solutions for greywater recycling. Chemosphere,71(1), 147-155.
50. Dalahmeh, S. S., Assayed, M., & Suleiman, W. T. (2009). Themes of stakeholder participation in greywater management in rural communities in Jordan. Desalination, 243(1), 159-169.
51. Gabarró, J., Batchellí, L., Balaguer, M. D., Puig, S., & Colprim, J. (2013). Grey water treatment at a sports centre for reuse in irrigation: A case study.Environmental technology, 34(11), 1385-1392.
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1. Raso, J. (2013). Updated Report on Wastewater Reuse in the European Union. European Commission: Brussels, Belgium.
2. Ghaitidak, D. M., & Yadav, K. D. (2013). Characteristics and treatment of greywater—A review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 20(5), 2795-2809.
3. Kulabako, N. R., Ssonko, N. K. M., & Kinobe, J. (2011). Greywater Characteristics and Reuse in Tower Gardens in Peri-Urban Areas- Experiences of Kawaala, Kampala, Uganda. Open Environmental Engineering Journal, 4, 147-154.
4. Jefferson, B., Palmer, A., Jeffrey, P., Stuetz, R., & Judd, S. (2004). Grey water characterisation and its impact on the selection and operation of technologies for urban reuse. Water Science & Technology, 50(2), 157-164.
5. Li, F., Behrendt, J., Wichmann, K., & Otterpohl, R. (2008). Resources and nutrients oriented greywater treatment for non-potable reuses. Water Science and Technology, 57(12), 1901-1908.
6. Li, F., Wichmann, K., & Otterpohl, R. (2009). Review of the technological approaches for grey water treatment and reuses. Science of the Total Environment, 407(11), 3439-3449.
7. Boyjoo, Y., Pareek, V. K., & Ang, M. (2013). A review of greywater characteristics and treatment processes. Water Science & Technology, 67(7), 1403-1424.
8. World Health Organization. (2006). Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater: Policy and regulatory aspects (Vol. 1). World Health Organization.
9. Christova-Boal, D., Eden, R. E., & McFarlane, S. (1996). An investigation into greywater reuse for urban residential properties. Desalination, 106(1), 391-397.
10. Naturvårdsverket. (1995). Vad innehåller avlopp från hushåll? Näring och metaller i urin och fekalier samt i disk-, tvätt-, bad- & duschvatten. (What does household wastewater contain? Nutrients and metals in urine, faeces and dish-, laundry and showerwater). Naturvårdsverket (Swedish EPA). Rapport 4425.
11. Casanova, L. M., Gerba, C. P. & Karpiscak, M. (2001). Chemical and microbial characterization of graywater. J Environ Sci Health, A36(4), 395-401. Christova-Boal, D., Eden, R. E. & McFarlane, S. (1996). An investigation into greywater reuse for urban residential properties. Desal, 106(1-3), 391-7.
12. Birks, R., Colbourne, J., Hills, S., & Hobson, R. (2004). Microbiological water quality in a large in-building, water recycling facility. Water Science & Technology, 50(2), 165-172.
13. 12-Eriksson, E., Auffarth, K., Eilersen, A. M., Henze, M., & Ledin, A. (2003). Household chemicals and personal care products as sources for xenobiotic organic compounds in grey wastewater. Water sa, 29(2), 135-146.
14. Winward, G. P., Avery, L. M., Frazer-Williams, R., Pidou, M., Jeffrey, P., Stephenson, T., & Jefferson, B. (2008). A study of the microbial quality of grey water and an evaluation of treatment technologies for reuse. Ecological engineering, 32(2), 187-197.
15. Misra, R. K., Patel, J. H. & Baxi, V. R 2010 Reuse potential of laundry greywater for irrigation based on growth, water and nutrient use of tomato. Journal of Hydrology 386 (1^), 95-102.
16. Dixon, A, Butler, D., Fewkes, A. & Robinson, M. 2000 Measurement and modelling of quality changes in stored untreated grey water. Urban Water 1 (4), 293-306.
17. Al-Jayyousi OR. Greywater reuse: towards sustainable water management. Desalination
18. 2003;156(1-3):181–92.
19. Bhattacharya, P., Sarkar, S., Ghosh, S., Majumdar, S., Mukhopadhyay, A., & Bandyopadhyay, S. (2013). Potential of ceramic microfiltration and ultrafiltration membranes for the treatment of gray water for an effective reuse. Desalination and water treatment, 51(22-24), 4323-4332.
20. Ramona, G., Green, M., Semiat, R., & Dosoretz, C. (2004). Low strength graywater characterization and treatmentby direct membrane filtration.Desalination, 170(3), 241-250.
21. Ghunmi, L. A., Zeeman, G., Fayyad, M., & van Lier, J. B. (2011). Grey water treatment systems: A review. Critical reviews in environmental science and technology, 41(7), 657-698.
22. Pidou, M., Avery, L., Stephenson, T., Jeffrey, P., Parsons, S. A., Liu, S., ... & Jefferson, B. (2008). Chemical solutions for greywater recycling. Chemosphere,71(1), 147-155.
23. Hernández-Leal, L., Temmink, H., Zeeman, G., & Buisman, C. J. N. (2011). Removal of micropollutants from aerobically treated grey water via ozone and activated carbon. Water Research, 45(9), 2887-2896.
24. Gulyas, H., Choromanski, P., Furmanska, M., Muelling, N., & Otterpohl, R. (2007, November). Photocatalytic oxidation of biologically treated greywater in the presence of powdered activated carbon. In International Conference on Sustainable Sanitation, Food and Water Security for Latin America, Fortaleza, Brazil.
25. Nolde, E. (2000). Greywater reuse systems for toilet flushing in multi-storey buildings–over ten years experience in Berlin. Urban water, 1(4), 275-284.
26. Ernst, M., Sperlich, A., Zheng, X., Gan, Y., Hu, J., Zhao, X., ... & Jekel, M. (2007). An integrated wastewater treatment and reuse concept for the Olympic Park 2008, Beijing. Desalination, 202(1), 293-301.
27. Maeda M, Nakada K, Kawamoto K, Ikeda M. Area-wide use of reclaimed water in Tokyo,
28. Japan. Water Sci Technol 1996;33(10-11):51–7.
29. Moslemi Zadeh, S. (2013). Sustainability evaluation of shared greywater recycling in urban mixed-use regeneration areas (Doctoral dissertation, University of Birmingham).
30. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (2004). Guidelines for water reuse. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Report No. EPA/625/R-04/108/September- 2004.
31. Baban, A., Hocaoglu, S. M., Atasoy, E. A., Gunes, K., Ayaz, S., & Regelsberger, M. (2010). Grey water treatment and reuse by using RBC: A kinetic approach. Desalination and water treatment, 23(1-3), 89-94.
32. Hernandez, L., Zeeman, G., Temmink, H., Marques, A., & Buisman, C. (2008). Comparison of three systems for biological grey water treatment. In Proc. IWA conference on Sanitation challenges, Wageningen, Netherlands, May (pp. 19-22).
33. Hernández Leal, L., Temmink, H., Zeeman, G., & Buisman, C. J. (2010). Comparison of three systems for biological greywater treatment. Water, 2(2), 155-169.
34. Smith, E., & Bani-Melhem, K. (2012). Grey water characterization and treatment for reuse in an arid environment. Water Science and Technology,66(1), 72.
35. Bani-Melhem, K., Al-Qodah, Z., Al-Shannag, M., Qasaimeh, A., Qtaishat, M. R., & Alkasrawi, M. (2015). On the performance of real grey water treatment using a submerged membrane bioreactor system. Journal of Membrane Science,476, 40-49.
36. Bani-Melhem, K., & Smith, E. (2012). Grey water treatment by a continuous process of an electrocoagulation unit and a submerged membrane bioreactor system. Chemical Engineering Journal, 198, 201-210.
37. Merz C, Scheumann R, Hamouri BE, Kraume M. Membrane bioreactor technology for the treatment of greywater from a sports and leisure club. Desalination 2007;215 (1-3):37–43.
38. Santasmasas, C., Rovira, M., Clarens, F., & Valderrama, C. (2013). Grey water reclamation by decentralized MBR prototype. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 72, 102-107.
39. Katukiza, A. Y., Ronteltap, M., Niwagaba, C. B., Kansiime, F., & Lens, P. N. L. (2014). Grey water treatment in urban slums by a filtration system: Optimisation of the filtration medium. Journal of environmental management, 146, 131-141.
40. Friedler, E., Kovalio, R., & Ben-Zvi, A. (2006). Comparative study of the microbial quality of greywater treated by three on-site treatment systems.Environmental technology, 27(6), 653-663.
41. Sostar-Turk S, Petrinic I, Simonic M. Laundry wastewater treatment using coagulation
42. and membrane filatration. Resour Conserv Recycl 2005;44(2):185–96.
43. Assayed, A., Chenoweth, J., & Pedley, S. (2015). Assessing the efficiency of an innovative method for onsite greywater treatment: Drawer compacted sand filter–A case study in Jordan. Ecological Engineering, 81, 525-533.
44. Gross A, Shmueli O, Ronen Z, Raveh E. Recycled vertical flow constructed wetland (RVFCW) — a novel method of recycling greywater for irrigation in small communities. Chemosphere 2007;66(5):916–23.
45. Frazer-Williams, R., Avery, L., Winward, G., Jeffrey, P., Shirley-Smith, C., Liu, S., ... & Jefferson, B. (2008). Constructed wetlands for urban grey water recycling. International Journal of Environment and Pollution, 33(1), 93-109.
46. Grčić, I., Vrsaljko, D., Katančić, Z., & Papić, S. (2015). Purification of household greywater loaded with hair colorants by solar photocatalysis using TiO 2-coated textile fibers coupled flocculation with chitosan. Journal of Water Process Engineering, 5, 15-27.
47. Parsons, S. A., Bedel, C., & Jefferson, B. (2000). Chemical vs. biological treatment of domestic greywater. In Proceedings of the 9th International Gothenburg Symposium on Chemical Treatment, Istanbul.
48. Lin C-J, Lo S-L, Kuo C-Y, Wu C-H. Pilot-scale electrocoagulation with bipolar aluminium electrodes for on-site domestic greywater reuse. J Environ Eng 2005:491–5 March.
49. 45-Pidou, M., Avery, L., Stephenson, T., Jeffrey, P., Parsons, S. A., Liu, S., ... & Jefferson, B. (2008). Chemical solutions for greywater recycling. Chemosphere,71(1), 147-155.
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