Writing Assessment Literacy: Strategy Development Among Iranian EFL Teachers
Subject Areas : Research in English Language Pedagogy
1 -
Keywords: EFL Teachers, Strategy Development, Writing Assessment Literacy ,
Abstract :
This study employed a grounded theory methodology to conceptualize the Writing Assessment Literacy (WAL) of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instructors in Iran. The research design consisted of two sequential phases. Initially, insights from a comprehensive literature review and semi-structured interviews with ten assessment experts were synthesized to develop a robust interview protocol. This instrument was subsequently employed to conduct in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 40 EFL teachers from Iranian language institutes. The data were analyzed through a systematic thematic analysis, employing both open and axial coding procedures, which were conducted manually and supported by NVivo software (version 10). The analysis led to the discovery of the core constructs of WAL strategies deployed by Iranian EFL teachers and the principal challenges they encounter in writing assessment practices. The findings hold significant implications for teacher professional development, suggesting pathways to enhance writing assessment literacy and refine pedagogical training in second language (L2) writing instruction within EFL contexts.
References:
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Al-Qadi, K., & Smadi, Q. (2014). The effect of group work and portfolio in writing activities on developing the linguistic and discourse competences of the EFL students at Al Al-Bayt University. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(15), 155–161.
Anderson, A. W. (2018). Truckin’ down the principles-focused evaluation road: A review of Michael Quinn Patton’s principles-focused evaluation: The GUIDE. The Qualitative Report, 23(4), 774–778. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2018.3457
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Bachman, L. F. (2014). Ongoing challenges in language assessment. In A. J. Kunnan (Ed.), The companion to language assessment (Vol. III, pp. 1586–1603). John Wiley and Sons.
Bachman, L., & Damböck, B. (2018). Language assessment for classroom teachers. Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L., & Palmer, A. (2010). Language assessment in practice: Developing language assessments and justifying their use in the real world. Oxford University Press.
Bahmani, M., Chalak, A., & Heidari Tabrizi, H. (2021). The effect of evaluative language on high- and low-graded post-graduate students’ academic writing ability across gender. Cogent Education, 8, 1905229. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2021. 1905229
Bastian, K. C., Henry, G. T., Pan, Y., & Lys, D. (2016). Teacher candidate performance assessments: Local scoring and implications for teacher preparation program improvement. Teaching and Teacher Education, 59, 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.05.008.
Behizadeh, N., & Engelhard, J. (2011). Historical view of the influences of measurement and writing theories on the practice of writing assessment in the United States, Journal of Assessing Writing, 16(3), 189–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2011.03.001
Beziat, T. L. R., & Coleman, B. K. (2015). Classroom assessment literacy: Evaluating pre-service teachers. The Researcher, 27(1), 25–30.
Borg, S. (2013). Teacher research in language teaching: A critical analysis. Cambridge University Press.
BoyerHassani, B., Chalak, A., & Heidari Tabrizi, H. (2023). Investigating the effect of synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated peer feedback on IELTS candidates’ writing development and interactions. Education and Self Development, 18(1), 26-42. https://doi.org/10.26907/esd.18.1.03
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Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of L2 student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 12, 267–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(03)00038-9
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https:// doi. org/ 10. 1186/ s40468- 020- 00101-6.
Chalak, A., & Heidari Tabrizi, H. (2023). Common errors in graduate Iranian EFL students' academic writing: Implications for practitioners. International Journal of Language Studies, 17(2), 141-164.
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Gao, L. X., & Zhang, L. J. (2020). Teacher learning in difficult times: Examining foreign language teachers’ cognitions about online teaching to tide over COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 549653. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.549653
Giraldo, A. F. (2018). Language assessment literacy: Implications for language teachers. Profile: Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 20(1), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.15446/profile.v20n1.62089
Hamed Al-Azani, N. A. (2015). Exploring English instructors’ perceptions and actual practices regarding the strategies used in teaching and assessing writing in three tertiary education institutions in the Sultanate of Oman. [Master’s thesis, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi, UAE].
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Hosseini, H., Chalak, A. & Biria, R. (2019). Impact of backward design on improving Iranian advanced learners’ writing ability: Teachers’ practices and beliefs. International Journal of Instruction, 12(2), 33-50. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.1223a
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Isaacson, S. (1984). Assessing the writing product: Qualitative and quantitative measures. Exceptional Children, 54(6), 528–534. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001440298805400606
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Jalilzadeh, K., Aşik, A., & Akbarian, I. (in review). Exploring writing assessment literacy of Turkish EFL instructors at preparatory schools: A mixed-methods study. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research.
Karaca, M., & Uysal, H. H. (2021). The development and validation of an inventory on English writing teacher beliefs. Assessing Writing, 47, Article 100507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2020.100507
Kim, S. L., & Kim, D. (2021). English learners’ science-literacy practice through explicit writing instruction in invention-based learning. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2, Article 100029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100029
Lam, R. (2019). Teacher assessment literacy: Surveying knowledge, conceptions and practices of classroom-based writing assessment in Hong Kong. System, 81, 78–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system. 2019.01.006
Lee, I. (2017). Classroom writing assessment and feedback in L2 school contexts. Springer.
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Mohamed, S., Kamis, A., & Ali, N. (2017). Gauging the assessment literacy of Malaysia’s home economics teachers: An empirical study. Geografia-Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 12(3), 130–138.
Nemati, M., Alavi, S. M., Mohebbi, H., & Masjedlou, A. P. (2017). Teachers’ writing proficiency and assessment ability: The missing link in teachers’ written corrective feedback practice in an Iranian EFL context. Language Testing in Asia, 7(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-017-0053-0
Nezakatgoo, B. (2011). Portfolio as a viable alternative in writing assessment. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(4), 747–756. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.2.4.747-756
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Polat, M. (2020). Investigating the backwash effect of higher education exam (YGS) on university students’ attitudes. International Journal of Psychology and Educational Studies, 7(3), 152–163. https://doi.org/10.17220/ijpes.2020.03.014
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Rashtchi, M., Porkar, R., & Ghazi Mir Saeed, F. (2019). Product-based, process-based, and genre-based instructions in expository writing: Focusing on EFL learners’ performance and strategy use. European Journal of Education Studies, 6(6), 115‒136. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3427842
Sabooni, M., & Salehi, N. (2015). The impact of reflective learning portfolio on the development of writing accuracy. Journal of Social Issues & Humanities, 3(1), 203–206.
Sahebalam, S., Baghaei, P., & Rashtchi, M. (2026). A comparison of Multifaceted Rasch Model and Rating Scale Model for evaluating EFL writing performance. International Journal of Language Testing, 16(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.22034/ijlt.2025.506999.1423
Santos, L., & Semana, S. (2015). Developing mathematics written communication through expository writing supported by assessment strategies. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 88(1), 65–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-014-9557-z
Scarino, A. (2013). Language assessment literacy as self-awareness: Understanding the role of interpretation in assessment and in teacher learning. Australia Language Testing, 30(3) 309–327. https://doi.org/10. 1177/0265532213480128
Shahsavar, Z. (2019). Diagnosing English learners’ writing skills: A cognitive diagnostic modeling study. Cogent Education, 6(1), Article 1608007. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1608007
Şişman, E. P., & Büyükkarci, K. (2019). A review of foreign language teachers’ assessment literacy. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 9(3), 628–650. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.621319
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Al-Qadi, K., & Smadi, Q. (2014). The effect of group work and portfolio in writing activities on developing the linguistic and discourse competences of the EFL students at Al Al-Bayt University. Journal of Education and Practice, 5(15), 155–161.
Anderson, A. W. (2018). Truckin’ down the principles-focused evaluation road: A review of Michael Quinn Patton’s principles-focused evaluation: The GUIDE. The Qualitative Report, 23(4), 774–778. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2018.3457
Atak, N. (2019). Written complexity developmental stages of Turkish EFL learners in argumentative writing [Doctoral dissertation, Bilkent University, Turkey].
Bachman, L. F. (2014). Ongoing challenges in language assessment. In A. J. Kunnan (Ed.), The companion to language assessment (Vol. III, pp. 1586–1603). John Wiley and Sons.
Bachman, L., & Damböck, B. (2018). Language assessment for classroom teachers. Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L., & Palmer, A. (2010). Language assessment in practice: Developing language assessments and justifying their use in the real world. Oxford University Press.
Bahmani, M., Chalak, A., & Heidari Tabrizi, H. (2021). The effect of evaluative language on high- and low-graded post-graduate students’ academic writing ability across gender. Cogent Education, 8, 1905229. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2021. 1905229
Bastian, K. C., Henry, G. T., Pan, Y., & Lys, D. (2016). Teacher candidate performance assessments: Local scoring and implications for teacher preparation program improvement. Teaching and Teacher Education, 59, 1–12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.05.008.
Behizadeh, N., & Engelhard, J. (2011). Historical view of the influences of measurement and writing theories on the practice of writing assessment in the United States, Journal of Assessing Writing, 16(3), 189–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2011.03.001
Beziat, T. L. R., & Coleman, B. K. (2015). Classroom assessment literacy: Evaluating pre-service teachers. The Researcher, 27(1), 25–30.
Borg, S. (2013). Teacher research in language teaching: A critical analysis. Cambridge University Press.
BoyerHassani, B., Chalak, A., & Heidari Tabrizi, H. (2023). Investigating the effect of synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated peer feedback on IELTS candidates’ writing development and interactions. Education and Self Development, 18(1), 26-42. https://doi.org/10.26907/esd.18.1.03
Campbell, C., Murphy, J. A., & Holt, J. K. (2013, October). Psychometric analysis of an assessment literacy instrument: Applicability to pre-service teachers [Paper presentation]. The annual meeting of the Midwestern Educational Research Association, Columbus, OH (pp. 17–18).
Carrero, G. (2018). An argument for writing assessment literacy for multilingual and L2 writers: Deconstructing linguistic bias [Doctoral dissertation, East Carolina University, USA].
Chandler, J. (2003). The efficacy of various kinds of error feedback for improvement in the accuracy and fluency of L2 student writing. Journal of Second Language Writing 12, 267–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(03)00038-9
Coombe, C., Vafadar, H., & Mohebbi, H. (2020). Language assessment literacy: What do we need to learn, unlearn, and relearn?. Language Testing in Asia, 10(3), 1–16.
https:// doi. org/ 10. 1186/ s40468- 020- 00101-6.
Chalak, A., & Heidari Tabrizi, H. (2023). Common errors in graduate Iranian EFL students' academic writing: Implications for practitioners. International Journal of Language Studies, 17(2), 141-164.
Creswell, J. W. (2018). Research design, qualitative and quantitative, and mixed methods approaches (5th ed.). Sage.
Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (2nd ed.). Sage.
Crusan, D., Plakans, L., & Gebril, A. (2016). Writing assessment literacy: Surveying second language teachers’ knowledge, beliefs, and practices. Assessing Writing, 28, 43–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. asw.2016.03.001
Dorri, A., Heidari Tabrizi, H., & Lotfi, A. (2025). The impact of language assessment literacy enhancement (LALE) on Iranian high school EFL students’ knowledge of assessment as learning in writing. International Journal of Language Testing, 15(1), 40-53. https://doi.org/10.22034/ ijlt.2024.444115.1327
Earl, L. M. (2013). Assessment as learning: Using classroom assessment to maximize student learning (2nd ed.). Sage.
Ergun, A. L. P., & Dewaele, J. M. (2021). Do well-being and resilience predict the foreign language teaching enjoyment of teachers of Italian? System, 99, Article 102506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system. 2021.102506
Fulcher, G. (2012). Assessment literacy for the language classroom. Language Assessment Quarterly, 9(2), 113–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2011.642041
Gao, L. X., & Zhang, L. J. (2020). Teacher learning in difficult times: Examining foreign language teachers’ cognitions about online teaching to tide over COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 549653. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.549653
Giraldo, A. F. (2018). Language assessment literacy: Implications for language teachers. Profile: Issues in Teachers’ Professional Development, 20(1), 179–195. https://doi.org/10.15446/profile.v20n1.62089
Hamed Al-Azani, N. A. (2015). Exploring English instructors’ perceptions and actual practices regarding the strategies used in teaching and assessing writing in three tertiary education institutions in the Sultanate of Oman. [Master’s thesis, United Arab Emirates University, Abu Dhabi, UAE].
Hamp-Lyons, L. (2003). Writing teachers as assessors of writing. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Exploring the dynamics of second language writing (pp. 162–189). Cambridge University Press.
Hosseini, H., Chalak, A. & Biria, R. (2019). Impact of backward design on improving Iranian advanced learners’ writing ability: Teachers’ practices and beliefs. International Journal of Instruction, 12(2), 33-50. https://doi.org/10.29333/iji.2019.1223a
Hughes, A. (2003). Testing for language teachers (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Hyland, K. (2019). Second language writing. Cambridge University Press.
Inbar-Lourie, O. (2008). Language assessment culture. In E. Shohamy & N. H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopedia of language and education (2nd ed., pp. 285–299). Springer.
Isaacson, S. (1984). Assessing the writing product: Qualitative and quantitative measures. Exceptional Children, 54(6), 528–534. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001440298805400606
Jalilzadeh, K. (2021). Teacher writing assessment literacy, beliefs, strategies, and practices [Doctoral dissertation, Gazi University, Turkey].
Jalilzadeh, K., Aşik, A., & Akbarian, I. (in review). Exploring writing assessment literacy of Turkish EFL instructors at preparatory schools: A mixed-methods study. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research.
Karaca, M., & Uysal, H. H. (2021). The development and validation of an inventory on English writing teacher beliefs. Assessing Writing, 47, Article 100507. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2020.100507
Kim, S. L., & Kim, D. (2021). English learners’ science-literacy practice through explicit writing instruction in invention-based learning. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 2, Article 100029. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2020.100029
Lam, R. (2019). Teacher assessment literacy: Surveying knowledge, conceptions and practices of classroom-based writing assessment in Hong Kong. System, 81, 78–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system. 2019.01.006
Lee, I. (2017). Classroom writing assessment and feedback in L2 school contexts. Springer.
Levi, T., & Inbar-Lourie, O. (2020). Assessment literacy or language assessment literacy: Learning from the teachers. Language Assessment Quarterly, 17(2), 168–182. https://doi.org/10.1080/15434303.2019. 1692347
Lockwood, K. J., Taylor, N., & Harding, K. (2015). Pre-discharge home assessment visits in assisting patients’ return to community living: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine, 47(4), 289–299. https://doi.org/10.2340/16501977-1942
Malone, M. E. (2013). The essentials of assessment literacy: Contrasts between testers and users. Language Testing, 30(3), 329–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532213480129
Masaeli, N. & Chalak, A. (2016). The effect of employing electronic portfolio on Iranian EFL learners' writing skill. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4(7). https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.0704.15
Mohamed, S., Kamis, A., & Ali, N. (2017). Gauging the assessment literacy of Malaysia’s home economics teachers: An empirical study. Geografia-Malaysian Journal of Society and Space, 12(3), 130–138.
Nemati, M., Alavi, S. M., Mohebbi, H., & Masjedlou, A. P. (2017). Teachers’ writing proficiency and assessment ability: The missing link in teachers’ written corrective feedback practice in an Iranian EFL context. Language Testing in Asia, 7(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-017-0053-0
Nezakatgoo, B. (2011). Portfolio as a viable alternative in writing assessment. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(4), 747–756. https://doi.org/10.4304/jltr.2.4.747-756
Nurdiana, N. N. (2021). Language teacher assessment Literacy: A current review. Journal of English Language and Culture, 11(1), 66–74. https://doi.org/10.30813/jelc.v11i1.2291
Pastore, S., & Andrade, H. L. (2019). Teacher assessment literacy: A three-dimensional model. Teaching and Teacher Education, 84, 128–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2019.05.003
Polat, M. (2020). Investigating the backwash effect of higher education exam (YGS) on university students’ attitudes. International Journal of Psychology and Educational Studies, 7(3), 152–163. https://doi.org/10.17220/ijpes.2020.03.014
Popham, W. J. (2009). Assessment literacy for teachers: Faddish or fundamental? Theory into Practice, 48, 4–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405840802577536
Rashtchi, M., Porkar, R., & Ghazi Mir Saeed, F. (2019). Product-based, process-based, and genre-based instructions in expository writing: Focusing on EFL learners’ performance and strategy use. European Journal of Education Studies, 6(6), 115‒136. http://dx.doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3427842
Sabooni, M., & Salehi, N. (2015). The impact of reflective learning portfolio on the development of writing accuracy. Journal of Social Issues & Humanities, 3(1), 203–206.
Sahebalam, S., Baghaei, P., & Rashtchi, M. (2026). A comparison of Multifaceted Rasch Model and Rating Scale Model for evaluating EFL writing performance. International Journal of Language Testing, 16(1), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.22034/ijlt.2025.506999.1423
Santos, L., & Semana, S. (2015). Developing mathematics written communication through expository writing supported by assessment strategies. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 88(1), 65–87. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10649-014-9557-z
Scarino, A. (2013). Language assessment literacy as self-awareness: Understanding the role of interpretation in assessment and in teacher learning. Australia Language Testing, 30(3) 309–327. https://doi.org/10. 1177/0265532213480128
Shahsavar, Z. (2019). Diagnosing English learners’ writing skills: A cognitive diagnostic modeling study. Cogent Education, 6(1), Article 1608007. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2019.1608007
Şişman, E. P., & Büyükkarci, K. (2019). A review of foreign language teachers’ assessment literacy. Sakarya University Journal of Education, 9(3), 628–650. https://doi.org/10.19126/suje.621319
Stiggins, R. J. (1991). Assessment literacy. Phi Delta Kappan, 72(7), 534–539.
Taylor, L. (2013). Communicating the theory, practice and principles of language testing to test stakeholders: Some reflections. Language Testing, 30(3), 403–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0265532213480338
Truscott, J., & Hsu, A. Y. (2008). Error correction, revision and learning. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17(4), 292–305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2008.05.003
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