Effect of Teacher Psychological Empowerment Program on Teacher-Student Interaction, Emotions and Teachers Academic Optimism

Subject Areas : Learning

mona valeh ¹ (2. Ph. D. Student of educational psychology, Department of psychology, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran)
Omid Shokri ² (3. Assistant Professor, Department of appllied psychology، University of Shahid Beheshti, Tehran, Iran)
Hassan Asadzadeh ³ (Associate Professor, Department of educational psychology, University of Allameh Tabatabaee, Tehran, Iran)

Received: 2021-06-12 Accepted : 2021-11-03 Published : 2021-12-22

Keywords: teacher psychological empowerment, teacher academic optimism, teacher emotions, teacher interaction,

Abstract :

Objective: The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of teacher psychological empowerment training program on Teacher Interaction, emotions and teachers academic optimism. Method: with a quasi-experimental study with a pretest-posttest nonequivalent control-group design and followed by two months, 60 teachers in the experimental groups (30 subjects in experimental group) and (30 subjects in the control group), before and after training, responded to the Questionnaire on Teacher Interaction (QTI), the Teacher Emotion Inventory (TEI), the Teacher Academic Optimism Scale (TAOA). The experimental group received 10 sessions of teachers’ resilience training package (2 hour a session). Results: The results of simple mixed ANOVA indicated that in the short and long term, the psycho-educational package was effective in increasing the psychological capital, teacher positive emotion, teachers’ academic optimism, adaptive dimensions of teacher-student interpersonal relation model and job related positive emotions and in decreasing the teacher negative emotions, job related negative emotions and non-adaptive dimensions of teacher-student interpersonal relation model. Conclusion: In sum, the results of this study according to the theoretical and empirical background of the teacher resilience study area show that in order to achieve the goal of teachers’ psychological capital need to emphasize their psychological psychological empowerment. Teacher psychological empowerment as a comprehensive conceptual framework includes the fields such as relations, motivation and emotions. Therefore, the effort to shape the concept of teacher resilience is made by increasing psychosocial resources. In these situations, on the one hand, teachers’ vulnerability to stressors is reduced, on the other hand, it leads to teacher thriving

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Birchinall, L., Spendlove, D., & Buck, R. (2019). In the moment: Does mindfulness hold the key to improving the resilience and wellbeing of pre-service teachers? Teaching and Teacher Education, 86, 102919.

Buric, I., & Moe, A. (2020). What makes teachers enthusiastic: The interplay of positive affect, self-efficacy and job satisfaction. .

Cameron, M., & Lovett, S. (2014). Sustaining the commitment and realizing the potential of highly promising teachers. Teachers and Teaching, 21(2), 150-163.

Cefai, C., & Cavioni, V. (2014). From neurasthenia to eudemonia: teachers' well-being and resilience. In C. Cefai, & V. Cavioni (Eds.), Social and emotional education in primary school: Integrating theory and research into practice (pp.133-148). New York: Springer Science Business Media.

Chan, D.W. (2008). Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and coping among Chinese prospective and in-service teachers in Hong Kong. Educational Psychology, 28(4), 397-408.

Chen, J. (2016). Understanding teacher emotions: The development of a teacher emotion inventory. Teaching and Teacher Education, 55, 68-77.

Chesak, S. S., Khalsa, T. K., Bhagra, A., Jenkins, A. M., Bauer, B. A. & Sood, A. (2019). Stress Management and Resiliency Training for public school teachers and staff: A novel intervention to enhance resilience and positively impact student interactions. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 37, 32–38.

Clara, M. (2017). Teacher resilience and meaning transformation: How teachers reappraise situations of adversity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 63, 82-91.

Clarence, M., George, T. S. (2018). Influence of psychological capital on affective commitment among teachers: A reflective analysis. Research Review International Journal of Multidisciplinary, 5, 60-64.

Day, C. (2014). Resilient principals in challenging schools: the courage and costs of conviction. Teachers and Teaching, 20(5), 638-654.

Day, C., & Gu, Q. (2014). Resilient teachers, resilient schools: Building and sustaining quality in testing times. Oxon, UK: Routledge.

Demetriou, H., Wilson, E., & Winterbottom, M. (2009). The role of emotion in teaching: are there differences between male and female newly qualified teachers' approaches to teaching? Educational Studies, 35(4), 449-473.

Ee, J., & Chang, A. (2010). How resilient are our graduate trainee teachers in Singapore? The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 19(2), 321-331.

Ergün, A. L. P., Dewaele, J. M. (2021). Do well-being and resilience predict the Foreign Language Teaching Enjoyment of teachers of Italian? System, 99, 102506.

Fernandes, L., Gouveia, M. J., Silva, J. C., & Peixoto, F. (2021). ‘Positive Education’: A Professional Learning Programme to Foster Teachers’ Resilience andWell-Being. In C. F. Mansfield (ed.), Cultivating Teacher Resilience, (pp. 103-124). Springer International Publishing.

Gallant, A., & Riley, P. (2014). Early career teacher attrition: new thoughts on an intractable problem. Teacher Development, 18(4), 562-580.

Gardner, S. (2011). Stress among prospective teachers: a review of the literature. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(1), 18-28.

Ghorbani, Z., Shokri, A., Fatehabadi, J., and Sharifi, M. (Under print). The Strong Relationship of Teacher Secretaries with Their Perceived Self-Efficacy for Students' Moral Education: The Mediating Role of Teacher Interpersonal Relationship Behavior. Quarterly Journal of New Educational Thoughts [In Persian]

Goldstein, L. S. (2005). Becoming a teacher as a hero's journey: using metaphor in pre-service teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(1), 7-24.

Graham, S. (2020). An attributional theory of motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 4. 10-17.

Granziera, H., & Perera, H. N. (2019). Relations among teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, engagement, and work satisfaction: A social cognitive view. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 58, 75-84.

Gu, Q., & Day, C. (2007). Teacher’s resilience: a necessary condition for effectiveness. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 1302-1316.

Halberstadt, A. G., Castro, V. L., Chu, Q., Lozada, F. T., & Sims, C. M. (2018). Preservice teachers’ racialized emotion recognition, anger bias, and hostility attributions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 125-138.

Hong, J. Y. (2012). Why do some beginning teachers leave the school, and others stay? Understanding teacher resilience through psychological lenses. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 18(4), 417-440.

Howard, S., & Johnson, B. (2004). Resilient teachers: resisting stress and burnout. Social Psychology of Education, 7(4), 399-420.

Huisman, S., Singer, N. R., & Catapano, S. (2010). Resiliency to success: supporting novice urban teachers. Teacher Development: An International Journal of Teachers' Professional Development, 14(4), 483-499.

Jennings, P. A., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2011). Improving classroom learning environments by Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE): results of two pilot studies. The Journal of Classroom Interaction, 46(1), 37-48.

Karakus, M., Ersozlu, A., Demir, S., Usak, M., & Wildy, H. (2019). A model of attitudinal outcomes of teachers’ psychological capital. PSIHOLOGIJA, 52(4), 363–378.

Kauppi, T., & Pörhölä, M. (2012). School teachers bullied by their students: Teachers' attributions and how they share their experiences. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28 (7), 1059-1068.

Khodaee. A, (2018). Persian version of Teacher Excitement List: A Psychometric Study. Quarterly Journal of Research in School and Virtual Learning, Fifth Year, No. 4 (20 consecutive), 38-25. [In Persian]

Kirk, J., & Wall, C. (2009). Resilience and loss in work identities: a narrative analysis of some retired teachers' work-life histo ries. British Educational Research Journal, 36(4), 627-641.

Kitching, K., Morgan, M., & O'Leary, M. (2009). It's the little things: exploring the importance of commonplace events for early-career teachers' motivation. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 15(1), 43-58.

Lazarides, R., Buchholz, J., & Rubach, C. (2018). Teacher enthusiasm and self-efficacy, student-perceived mastery goal orientation, and student motivation in mathematics classrooms. Teaching and Teacher Education, 69, 1-10.

Le Cornu, R. (2013). Building early career teacher resilience: the role of relationships. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(4), 1-16.

Lee, J. C. K., & Yin, H. B. (2011). Teachers' emotions and professional identity in curriculum reform: A Chinese perspective. Journal of Educational Change, 12(1), 25-46.

Liou, Y. H., & Canrinus, E. T. (2020). A capital framework for professional learning and practice. International Journal of Educational Research, 100, 101-115.

Mackenzie, S. (2012). ‘I can't imagine doing anything else’: why do teachers of children with SEN remain in the profession? Resilience, rewards and realism over time. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 12(3), 151-161.

Mansfield, C. F., Beltman, S., Broadley, T., & Weatherby-Fell, N. (2016). Building resilience in teacher education: An evidenced informed Framework. Teaching and Teacher Education, 54, 77-87.

Mayer, D. (2014). Forty years of teacher education in Australia: 1974-2014. Journal of Education for Teaching, 40(5), 461-473.

McInerney, D. M., Korpershoek, H., Wang, H., & Morin, A. J. S. (2018). Teachers’ occupational attributes and their psychological wellbeing, job satisfaction, occupational self-concept and quitting intentions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 71, 145-158.

Meister, D. G., & Ahrens, P. (2011). Resisting plateauing: four veteran teachers' stories. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(4), 770-778. 

Mirhashemi Ruteh, Z., and Shokri, A. (2018). The Relationship between Perceived Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Behavior The teacher-student interpersonal relationship: The mediating role of teacher emotions. Research in School and Virtual Learning, Year 6, Issue 3 (23), 52-37. [In Persian]

Momeni Mahmoui, H., and Jalali Barzari, S. (2016). The Relationship between Teachers 'Academic Optimism and Students' Perception of Social Support, Student Motivation, and Academic Achievement. Quarterly Journal of New Approach in Educational Management, Volume 7, Number 26, 200-181. [In Persian]

Movahedi, M. H, (2016). The relationship between secretary strengths and health behaviors with the mediating role of emotions in teachers. Master Thesis. Islamic Azad University Tehran Branch. [In Persian]

Newberry, M., Gallant, A., & Riley, P. (2013). Emotion and school: Understanding how the hidden curriculum influences relationships, leadership, teaching, and learning. Bingley, UK: Emerald.

Nouri, A., Shukri, A., and Sharifi, M. (2013). Job stress and teachers' emotional well-being: A pattern test of the mediating effect of self-efficacy beliefs. Journal of Applied Psychology, Year 7, No. 4 (28), 76-59. [In Persian]

Papageorgiou, K. A., Gianniou, F. M., Wilson, P., Moneta, G. B., Bilello, D., & Clough, P. J. (2019). The bright side of dark: Exploring the positive effect of narcissism on perceived stress through mental toughness. Personality and Individual Differences, 139, 116–124.

Rehman, F., & Ali, A. (2018). Relationship between psychological capital and teachers’ job commitment. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 8(3)148-154.

Ryan, M. L., Shochet, I. M., & Stallman, H. M. (2014). Universal online interventions might engage psychologically distressed university students who are unlikely to seek formal help. Advances in Mental Health, 9(1), 73-83.

Sarmad, Z., Bazargan, A., and Hejazi, A. (2016). Research methods in behavioral sciences. Tehran: Agah Publications. [In Persian]

Schlichte, J., Yssel, N., & Merbler, J. (2005). Pathways to burnout: case studies in teacher isolation and alienation. Preventing School Failure, 50(1), 35-40.

Tait, M. (2008). Resilience as a contributor to novice teacher success, commitment, and retention. Teacher Education Quarterly, 35(4), 57-76.

Tang, Y. (2018). What makes rural teachers happy? An investigation on the subjective well-being (SWB) of Chinese rural teachers. International Journal of Educational Development, 62, 192-200

Wang, H., Hall, N. C., & Rahimi, S. (2015). Self-efficacy and causal attributions in teachers: Effects on burnout, job satisfaction, illness, and quitting intentions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 47, 120-130.

Wang, J. H., Chen, Y. T., & Hsu, M. H. (2014). A case study on psychological capital and teaching effectiveness in elementary schools. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 6 (4), 331-337.

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of personality and social psychology, 54(6), 1063-1070.

Welsh, P., Rodgers, J., & Honey, E. (2019). Teachers' perceptions of restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs) in children with ASD: Attributions, confidence and emotional response. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 89, 29-40.

Woodcock, S., Hitches, E., & Jones, G. (2019). It’s not you, it’s me: Teachers’ self-efficacy and attributional beliefs towards students with specific learning difficulties. International Journal of Educational Research, 972019, 107-118

Woolfolk Hoy, A., Hoy, W. K., & Kurz, N. (2008). Teacher's academic optimism: the development and test of a new construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 821-834.

Yankov, G. P., Davenport, N., & Sherman, R. A. (2019). Locating mental toughness in factor models of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 151, 109-118.

Ainsworth, S., & Oldfield, J. (2019). Quantifying teacher resilience: Context matters. Teaching and Teacher Education, 82, 117-128.

Beltman, S. (2015). Teacher professional resilience: Thriving not just surviving. In N. Weatherby-Fell (Ed.), Learning to teach in the secondary school (pp. 20-38). Melbourne, Aust: Cambridge University Press.

Beltman, S., Mansfield, C., & Price, A. (2011). Thriving not just surviving: a review of research on teacher resilience. Educational Research Review, 6, 185-207. 

Bernardo, A. B. I. (2010). Extending hope theory: Internal and external locus of trait hope. Personality and Individual Differences, 49 (8), 944-949.

Birchinall, L., Spendlove, D., & Buck, R. (2019). In the moment: Does mindfulness hold the key to improving the resilience and wellbeing of pre-service teachers? Teaching and Teacher Education, 86, 102919.

Buric, I., & Moe, A. (2020). What makes teachers enthusiastic: The interplay of positive affect, self-efficacy and job satisfaction. .

Cameron, M., & Lovett, S. (2014). Sustaining the commitment and realizing the potential of highly promising teachers. Teachers and Teaching, 21(2), 150-163.

Cefai, C., & Cavioni, V. (2014). From neurasthenia to eudemonia: teachers' well-being and resilience. In C. Cefai, & V. Cavioni (Eds.), Social and emotional education in primary school: Integrating theory and research into practice (pp.133-148). New York: Springer Science Business Media.

Chan, D.W. (2008). Emotional intelligence, self-efficacy, and coping among Chinese prospective and in-service teachers in Hong Kong. Educational Psychology, 28(4), 397-408.

Chen, J. (2016). Understanding teacher emotions: The development of a teacher emotion inventory. Teaching and Teacher Education, 55, 68-77.

Chesak, S. S., Khalsa, T. K., Bhagra, A., Jenkins, A. M., Bauer, B. A. & Sood, A. (2019). Stress Management and Resiliency Training for public school teachers and staff: A novel intervention to enhance resilience and positively impact student interactions. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 37, 32–38.

Clara, M. (2017). Teacher resilience and meaning transformation: How teachers reappraise situations of adversity. Teaching and Teacher Education, 63, 82-91.

Clarence, M., George, T. S. (2018). Influence of psychological capital on affective commitment among teachers: A reflective analysis. Research Review International Journal of Multidisciplinary, 5, 60-64.

Day, C. (2014). Resilient principals in challenging schools: the courage and costs of conviction. Teachers and Teaching, 20(5), 638-654.

Day, C., & Gu, Q. (2014). Resilient teachers, resilient schools: Building and sustaining quality in testing times. Oxon, UK: Routledge.

Demetriou, H., Wilson, E., & Winterbottom, M. (2009). The role of emotion in teaching: are there differences between male and female newly qualified teachers' approaches to teaching? Educational Studies, 35(4), 449-473.

Ee, J., & Chang, A. (2010). How resilient are our graduate trainee teachers in Singapore? The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 19(2), 321-331.

Ergün, A. L. P., Dewaele, J. M. (2021). Do well-being and resilience predict the Foreign Language Teaching Enjoyment of teachers of Italian? System, 99, 102506.

Fernandes, L., Gouveia, M. J., Silva, J. C., & Peixoto, F. (2021). ‘Positive Education’: A Professional Learning Programme to Foster Teachers’ Resilience andWell-Being. In C. F. Mansfield (ed.), Cultivating Teacher Resilience, (pp. 103-124). Springer International Publishing.

Gallant, A., & Riley, P. (2014). Early career teacher attrition: new thoughts on an intractable problem. Teacher Development, 18(4), 562-580.

Gardner, S. (2011). Stress among prospective teachers: a review of the literature. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 36(1), 18-28.

Ghorbani, Z., Shokri, A., Fatehabadi, J., and Sharifi, M. (Under print). The Strong Relationship of Teacher Secretaries with Their Perceived Self-Efficacy for Students' Moral Education: The Mediating Role of Teacher Interpersonal Relationship Behavior. Quarterly Journal of New Educational Thoughts [In Persian]

Goldstein, L. S. (2005). Becoming a teacher as a hero's journey: using metaphor in pre-service teacher education. Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(1), 7-24.

Graham, S. (2020). An attributional theory of motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 4. 10-17.

Granziera, H., & Perera, H. N. (2019). Relations among teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs, engagement, and work satisfaction: A social cognitive view. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 58, 75-84.

Gu, Q., & Day, C. (2007). Teacher’s resilience: a necessary condition for effectiveness. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 1302-1316.

Halberstadt, A. G., Castro, V. L., Chu, Q., Lozada, F. T., & Sims, C. M. (2018). Preservice teachers’ racialized emotion recognition, anger bias, and hostility attributions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 54, 125-138.

Hong, J. Y. (2012). Why do some beginning teachers leave the school, and others stay? Understanding teacher resilience through psychological lenses. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 18(4), 417-440.

Howard, S., & Johnson, B. (2004). Resilient teachers: resisting stress and burnout. Social Psychology of Education, 7(4), 399-420.

Huisman, S., Singer, N. R., & Catapano, S. (2010). Resiliency to success: supporting novice urban teachers. Teacher Development: An International Journal of Teachers' Professional Development, 14(4), 483-499.

Jennings, P. A., Snowberg, K. E., Coccia, M. A., & Greenberg, M. T. (2011). Improving classroom learning environments by Cultivating Awareness and Resilience in Education (CARE): results of two pilot studies. The Journal of Classroom Interaction, 46(1), 37-48.

Karakus, M., Ersozlu, A., Demir, S., Usak, M., & Wildy, H. (2019). A model of attitudinal outcomes of teachers’ psychological capital. PSIHOLOGIJA, 52(4), 363–378.

Kauppi, T., & Pörhölä, M. (2012). School teachers bullied by their students: Teachers' attributions and how they share their experiences. Teaching and Teacher Education, 28 (7), 1059-1068.

Khodaee. A, (2018). Persian version of Teacher Excitement List: A Psychometric Study. Quarterly Journal of Research in School and Virtual Learning, Fifth Year, No. 4 (20 consecutive), 38-25. [In Persian]

Kirk, J., & Wall, C. (2009). Resilience and loss in work identities: a narrative analysis of some retired teachers' work-life histo ries. British Educational Research Journal, 36(4), 627-641.

Kitching, K., Morgan, M., & O'Leary, M. (2009). It's the little things: exploring the importance of commonplace events for early-career teachers' motivation. Teachers and Teaching: Theory and Practice, 15(1), 43-58.

Lazarides, R., Buchholz, J., & Rubach, C. (2018). Teacher enthusiasm and self-efficacy, student-perceived mastery goal orientation, and student motivation in mathematics classrooms. Teaching and Teacher Education, 69, 1-10.

Le Cornu, R. (2013). Building early career teacher resilience: the role of relationships. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 38(4), 1-16.

Lee, J. C. K., & Yin, H. B. (2011). Teachers' emotions and professional identity in curriculum reform: A Chinese perspective. Journal of Educational Change, 12(1), 25-46.

Liou, Y. H., & Canrinus, E. T. (2020). A capital framework for professional learning and practice. International Journal of Educational Research, 100, 101-115.

Mackenzie, S. (2012). ‘I can't imagine doing anything else’: why do teachers of children with SEN remain in the profession? Resilience, rewards and realism over time. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 12(3), 151-161.

Mansfield, C. F., Beltman, S., Broadley, T., & Weatherby-Fell, N. (2016). Building resilience in teacher education: An evidenced informed Framework. Teaching and Teacher Education, 54, 77-87.

Mayer, D. (2014). Forty years of teacher education in Australia: 1974-2014. Journal of Education for Teaching, 40(5), 461-473.

McInerney, D. M., Korpershoek, H., Wang, H., & Morin, A. J. S. (2018). Teachers’ occupational attributes and their psychological wellbeing, job satisfaction, occupational self-concept and quitting intentions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 71, 145-158.

Meister, D. G., & Ahrens, P. (2011). Resisting plateauing: four veteran teachers' stories. Teaching and Teacher Education, 27(4), 770-778. 

Mirhashemi Ruteh, Z., and Shokri, A. (2018). The Relationship between Perceived Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Behavior The teacher-student interpersonal relationship: The mediating role of teacher emotions. Research in School and Virtual Learning, Year 6, Issue 3 (23), 52-37. [In Persian]

Momeni Mahmoui, H., and Jalali Barzari, S. (2016). The Relationship between Teachers 'Academic Optimism and Students' Perception of Social Support, Student Motivation, and Academic Achievement. Quarterly Journal of New Approach in Educational Management, Volume 7, Number 26, 200-181. [In Persian]

Movahedi, M. H, (2016). The relationship between secretary strengths and health behaviors with the mediating role of emotions in teachers. Master Thesis. Islamic Azad University Tehran Branch. [In Persian]

Newberry, M., Gallant, A., & Riley, P. (2013). Emotion and school: Understanding how the hidden curriculum influences relationships, leadership, teaching, and learning. Bingley, UK: Emerald.

Nouri, A., Shukri, A., and Sharifi, M. (2013). Job stress and teachers' emotional well-being: A pattern test of the mediating effect of self-efficacy beliefs. Journal of Applied Psychology, Year 7, No. 4 (28), 76-59. [In Persian]

Papageorgiou, K. A., Gianniou, F. M., Wilson, P., Moneta, G. B., Bilello, D., & Clough, P. J. (2019). The bright side of dark: Exploring the positive effect of narcissism on perceived stress through mental toughness. Personality and Individual Differences, 139, 116–124.

Rehman, F., & Ali, A. (2018). Relationship between psychological capital and teachers’ job commitment. Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 8(3)148-154.

Ryan, M. L., Shochet, I. M., & Stallman, H. M. (2014). Universal online interventions might engage psychologically distressed university students who are unlikely to seek formal help. Advances in Mental Health, 9(1), 73-83.

Sarmad, Z., Bazargan, A., and Hejazi, A. (2016). Research methods in behavioral sciences. Tehran: Agah Publications. [In Persian]

Schlichte, J., Yssel, N., & Merbler, J. (2005). Pathways to burnout: case studies in teacher isolation and alienation. Preventing School Failure, 50(1), 35-40.

Tait, M. (2008). Resilience as a contributor to novice teacher success, commitment, and retention. Teacher Education Quarterly, 35(4), 57-76.

Tang, Y. (2018). What makes rural teachers happy? An investigation on the subjective well-being (SWB) of Chinese rural teachers. International Journal of Educational Development, 62, 192-200

Wang, H., Hall, N. C., & Rahimi, S. (2015). Self-efficacy and causal attributions in teachers: Effects on burnout, job satisfaction, illness, and quitting intentions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 47, 120-130.

Wang, J. H., Chen, Y. T., & Hsu, M. H. (2014). A case study on psychological capital and teaching effectiveness in elementary schools. International Journal of Engineering and Technology, 6 (4), 331-337.

Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and validation of brief measures of positive and negative affect: the PANAS scales. Journal of personality and social psychology, 54(6), 1063-1070.

Welsh, P., Rodgers, J., & Honey, E. (2019). Teachers' perceptions of restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs) in children with ASD: Attributions, confidence and emotional response. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 89, 29-40.

Woodcock, S., Hitches, E., & Jones, G. (2019). It’s not you, it’s me: Teachers’ self-efficacy and attributional beliefs towards students with specific learning difficulties. International Journal of Educational Research, 972019, 107-118

Woolfolk Hoy, A., Hoy, W. K., & Kurz, N. (2008). Teacher's academic optimism: the development and test of a new construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 24, 821-834.

Yankov, G. P., Davenport, N., & Sherman, R. A. (2019). Locating mental toughness in factor models of personality. Personality and Individual Differences, 151, 109-118.