Effectiveness of Dart Throwing Training through Self-Talk in Male Novices
Subject Areas : Educational Psychology
Amir Dana
1
(داشگاه آزاد اسلامی واحد تبریز)
Keywords: self-talk, self-selection, dart throwing training, novice,
Abstract :
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of dart throwing training through different types of self-talk in male novices. To this aim, 48 male novices (age mean=23 years) were selected using simple random sampling method from the training programs of Urmia dart association and were assigned to four groups, each with 12 individuals. Experimental interventions for the groups included: 1) coach choice group: self-talking of "target - center" phrase, 2) free choice group: self-talking of any phrase to improve concentration and focus, 3) selective choice group: self-talking of one phrase from "target-center", "target", "center", "finger - center", "the middle point", and "finger-target" options, and the control group: with no self-talking. The collected data from the pre- and post-tests were analyzed using ANCOVA test and LSD follow-up test. After controlling for the pre-test levels, the results demonstrated that the main effect of the group on the scores of the performance error at the post-test was statistically significant. The follow-up comparisons showed that the performance error in the selective choice group was significantly lower than other groups. Also, the performance error in the free choice group was lower that the control group, but its difference with the coach choice group was not statistically significant. Moreover, no significant difference was observed between the performance errors of the coach choice and control groups. The findings of the study suggested that motor skills training though self-talk, especially when novices are allowed to select verbal cues, do improve the effectiveness of training
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Chroni, S., Perkos, S., & Theodorakis, Y. (2007). Function and Preference of Motivational and Instructional Self-talk for Adolescent Basketball Players. Athletic Insight, 9(1), 19-31.
Cumming, J., Nordin, S. M., Horton, R., & Reynolds, S. (2006). Examining the direction of imagery and self-talk on dart-throwing performance and self-efficacy. The Sport Psychologist, 20, 257-274
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Edvards, C., Tod, D. A., & Mcguigan, M. (2008). Self-talk influences vertical jump performance and kinematics in male rugby union players. Journal of Sports Science, 26(13), 1459-65.
Ghaffari, S., Bagherli, J., & Sanatkaran, A. (2013). The effects of frequency of instructional self-talk on improving the motor performance of dart throwing. Research Journal of Sport Science, 1(1), 18-25.
Hardy, J. (2006). Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, 81-97.
Hardy, J., Gammage, K., & Hall, C. (2001). A descriptive study of athletes self-talk. The Sport Psychologist, 15, 306-318.
Hardy, J., Hall, C., Gibbs, C., & Greenslade, C. (2005). Self-talk and motor skill performance: An Experimental Approach? Athletic Insight, 71, 94-101.
Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1996). Understanding psychological preparation for sport: Theory and practice. Chichester, England: Jones Wiley & Sons.
Harvey, T., Van Raalte, J., & Brewer, B. (2002). Relationship between self-talk and golf performance. International Sports Journal, 6(1), 84-91.
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., & Biddle, S. J. (2008). Negative self-talk during sport performance: relationships with pre-competition anxiety and goal-performance discrepancies. Journal of Sport Behavior, 31(3), 237-253.
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Theodorakis, Y., & Zourbanos, N. (2004). Self-talk in the swimming pool: The effects of self-talk on thought content and performance on water-polo tasks. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 16(2), 138-150.
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Landin, D., & Hebert, E. P. (1999). The influence of self-talk on the performance of skilled female tennis players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, 263-282.
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Mallett, C. J., & Hanrahan, S. J. (1997). Race modeling: An effective cognitive strategy for 100 m sprinter? The Sport Psychologist, 11, 72-85.
Masciana, R.C., Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, B.W., Branton, M.G., & Coughlin, M.A. (2001). Effects of cognitive strategies on dart throwing performance. International Sports Journal, 5, 31–39.
Perkos, S., Theodorakis, Y., & Chroni, S. (2002). Enhancing performance and skill acquisition in novice basketball players with instructional self-talk. The Sport Psychologist, 16, 368-383.
Raalte, J. L. V., Brewer, B. W., Lewis, B. P., Linder, D. E., Wildman, G., & Kozimor, J. (1995). Cork! The effects of positive and negative self-talk on dart performance. Journal of Sport Behavior, 18(1), 50-57.
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Raalte, J. L. V., Vincent, A., & Brewer, B. W. (2016). Self-talk: Review and sport-specific model. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 139-148.
Rushall, B. S. (1984). The content of competition thinking. In W. F. Straub & J. M. Williams (Eds.), Cognitive sport psychology (pp 51-62). Lansing, NY: Sport Science Associates.
Rushall, B. S., Hall, M., Roux, L., Sasseville, J., & Rushall A. S. (1988). Effects of three types of thought content instructions on skiing performance. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 283-297.
Sellars, C. (1997). Building Self Confidence. Leeds, UK: National Coaching Foundation.
Stevens, J. A. (2004). Interference effects demonstrate distinct roles for visual and motor imagery during the mental representation of human action. Cognition, 95(3), 329–350.
Theodorakis, Y., Chroni, S., Laparidis, K., Bebesto J. V., & Douma, E. (2001). Self talk in a basketball shooting task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92, 309-315.
Theodorakis, Y., Weinberg, R., Natsis, P., Douma, I., & Kazakas, P. (2000). The effects of motivational versus instructional self-talk on improving motor performance. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 263-272.
Tod, D. A., Thatcher, R., Mcguigan, M., & Thatcher, J. (2009). Effects of Instructional and Motivational Self-Talk on the Vertical Jump. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(1), 196-202.
Van Noorde, N. L. (1984). Development and evaluation of a self-talk assessment instrument for tennis players. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lancing, MI.
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2003). Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (3rd Ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Weinberg, R. S., Grove, R., & Jackson, A. (1992). Strategies for building self-efficacy in tennis players: A comparative analysis of Australian and American coaches. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 3-13.
Zinnser, N., Bunker, L., & Williams, J. M. (2006). Cognitive techniques for building confidence and enhancing performance. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied Sport Psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (5th Ed., pp. 349-381). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
_||_Aghdasi, M. T., & Touba, N. (2012). The effects of instructional self-talk on girl’s performance, retention and transfer of dart throwing in late childhood and adolescence. Journal of Physical Education and Sport, 12(3), 391-397.
Anderson, M., & Pitcairn, T. (1986). Motor control in dart throwing. Human Movement Science, 5, l-18.
Chroni, S., Perkos, S., & Theodorakis, Y. (2007). Function and Preference of Motivational and Instructional Self-talk for Adolescent Basketball Players. Athletic Insight, 9(1), 19-31.
Cumming, J., Nordin, S. M., Horton, R., & Reynolds, S. (2006). Examining the direction of imagery and self-talk on dart-throwing performance and self-efficacy. The Sport Psychologist, 20, 257-274
Desmurget, M., Pelisson, D., Rossetti, Y., & Prablanc, C. (1998). From eye to hand: Planning goal-directed movements. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 22(6), 761–788.
Edvards, C., Tod, D. A., & Mcguigan, M. (2008). Self-talk influences vertical jump performance and kinematics in male rugby union players. Journal of Sports Science, 26(13), 1459-65.
Ghaffari, S., Bagherli, J., & Sanatkaran, A. (2013). The effects of frequency of instructional self-talk on improving the motor performance of dart throwing. Research Journal of Sport Science, 1(1), 18-25.
Hardy, J. (2006). Speaking clearly: A critical review of the self-talk literature. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 7, 81-97.
Hardy, J., Gammage, K., & Hall, C. (2001). A descriptive study of athletes self-talk. The Sport Psychologist, 15, 306-318.
Hardy, J., Hall, C., Gibbs, C., & Greenslade, C. (2005). Self-talk and motor skill performance: An Experimental Approach? Athletic Insight, 71, 94-101.
Hardy, L., Jones, G., & Gould, D. (1996). Understanding psychological preparation for sport: Theory and practice. Chichester, England: Jones Wiley & Sons.
Harvey, T., Van Raalte, J., & Brewer, B. (2002). Relationship between self-talk and golf performance. International Sports Journal, 6(1), 84-91.
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., & Biddle, S. J. (2008). Negative self-talk during sport performance: relationships with pre-competition anxiety and goal-performance discrepancies. Journal of Sport Behavior, 31(3), 237-253.
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Theodorakis, Y., & Zourbanos, N. (2004). Self-talk in the swimming pool: The effects of self-talk on thought content and performance on water-polo tasks. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 16(2), 138-150.
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Goltsios, C., & Theodorakis, Y. (2008). Investigating the functions of self-talk: The effects of motivational self-talk on self-efficacy and performance in young tennis players. The Sport Psychologist, 22, 458-471.
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Mpoumpaki, S., & Theodorakis, Y, (2009). Mechanisms underlying the self-talk-performance relationship: The effect of motivational self-talk on self-confidence and anxiety. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 186–192
Jeannerod, M., & Jacob, P. (2005). Visual cognition: a new look at the two-visual systems model. Neuropsychologia, 43(2), 301–312.
Joseph, T. A. (2004). The effect of mental practice type on dart-throwing performance. Unpublished master thesis. University of South Florida.
Kosslyn, S. M., Ganis, G., & Thompson, W. (2001). Neural foundations of imagery. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 2, 635-642.
Landin, D., & Hebert, E. P. (1999). The influence of self-talk on the performance of skilled female tennis players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, 263-282.
Lohse, K. R., Sherwood, D. E., & Healy, A. F. (2010). How changing the focus of attention affects performance, kinematics, and electromyography in dart throwing. Human Movement Science, 29, 542–555.
Mallett, C. J., & Hanrahan, S. J. (1997). Race modeling: An effective cognitive strategy for 100 m sprinter? The Sport Psychologist, 11, 72-85.
Masciana, R.C., Van Raalte, J.L., Brewer, B.W., Branton, M.G., & Coughlin, M.A. (2001). Effects of cognitive strategies on dart throwing performance. International Sports Journal, 5, 31–39.
Perkos, S., Theodorakis, Y., & Chroni, S. (2002). Enhancing performance and skill acquisition in novice basketball players with instructional self-talk. The Sport Psychologist, 16, 368-383.
Raalte, J. L. V., Brewer, B. W., Lewis, B. P., Linder, D. E., Wildman, G., & Kozimor, J. (1995). Cork! The effects of positive and negative self-talk on dart performance. Journal of Sport Behavior, 18(1), 50-57.
Raalte, J. L. V., Cornelius, A. E., Brewer, B. W., & Hatten, S. J. (2000). The antecedents and consequences of self-talk in competitive tennis. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 22, 345-356.
Raalte, J. L. V., Vincent, A., & Brewer, B. W. (2016). Self-talk: Review and sport-specific model. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 139-148.
Rushall, B. S. (1984). The content of competition thinking. In W. F. Straub & J. M. Williams (Eds.), Cognitive sport psychology (pp 51-62). Lansing, NY: Sport Science Associates.
Rushall, B. S., Hall, M., Roux, L., Sasseville, J., & Rushall A. S. (1988). Effects of three types of thought content instructions on skiing performance. The Sport Psychologist, 2, 283-297.
Sellars, C. (1997). Building Self Confidence. Leeds, UK: National Coaching Foundation.
Stevens, J. A. (2004). Interference effects demonstrate distinct roles for visual and motor imagery during the mental representation of human action. Cognition, 95(3), 329–350.
Theodorakis, Y., Chroni, S., Laparidis, K., Bebesto J. V., & Douma, E. (2001). Self talk in a basketball shooting task. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 92, 309-315.
Theodorakis, Y., Weinberg, R., Natsis, P., Douma, I., & Kazakas, P. (2000). The effects of motivational versus instructional self-talk on improving motor performance. The Sport Psychologist, 14, 263-272.
Tod, D. A., Thatcher, R., Mcguigan, M., & Thatcher, J. (2009). Effects of Instructional and Motivational Self-Talk on the Vertical Jump. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 23(1), 196-202.
Van Noorde, N. L. (1984). Development and evaluation of a self-talk assessment instrument for tennis players. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Michigan State University, East Lancing, MI.
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2003). Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology (3rd Ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Weinberg, R. S., Grove, R., & Jackson, A. (1992). Strategies for building self-efficacy in tennis players: A comparative analysis of Australian and American coaches. The Sport Psychologist, 6, 3-13.
Zinnser, N., Bunker, L., & Williams, J. M. (2006). Cognitive techniques for building confidence and enhancing performance. In J. M. Williams (Ed.), Applied Sport Psychology: Personal growth to peak performance (5th Ed., pp. 349-381). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc
