The Authoritative Governance in the Middle East And the Process of “Transition to Democracy”
محورهای موضوعی : Political Scienceکلید واژه: Authoritarianism, Civil Society, Middle East, political participation, Democratization, Islamism,
چکیده مقاله :
Duringpast two decades, “Pass through a democratic status” gave attention by mostMiddle East analysts. In fact, since the early 1980s, The Middle East and TheNorth of Africa affected by third wave of democratization effects and bothstate and society felt its impacts. Since, civil society has been promoting andstrengthening, from one hand, and sovereign governments gradually withdrawalhas begun, from the other. In a number of countries, this civil societystrength with weakness and withdrawal of sovereign governments was so that madesome analysts optimists to the coming Middle East. However, during the time, itwas revealed that the democracy in the states’ viewpoints was different fromthe Middle Eastern citizens’ democratic calls. Put it differently, thesovereign political elites sought for a democracy in which there was no changesin power relationships, and participation declined to a quantitative presencein elections - with predictable results - as well. This led the writers andanalysts to adopt more real and precise positions to obstacles of democratictransition. To better understanding, one should aware that, like any othersocial changes, this democratic transient, in each nation and country, requiresproper subjective and /or objective conditions to achieve. Proper subjectivegrounds mean penetration of democratic thoughts and notions among peoples.Besides, Proper socio-economic conditions are very important and necessary;the increased and promoted middle-classand its independence of state is the most important indications of theseobjective situations. Of course, these two positions is hard to reach, and itdoesn’t mean that this democratic transition will be occurred so fast andsimple, since, as evidently, the historicaland cultural background might appear a rigid and hard obstacle - or onthe contrary - shortens this process.
]
References
Ahmadi, Hamid (1992), “Democratization and Prospects of Democracy in the Middle East,” Ottawa: Carleton University.
|
25 |
Al-Sayyid, Mustapha Kamel (1995), “The Concept of Civil Society and the Arab World” in Political Liberalizetion and Democratization in the Arab World, Vol. 1, Edited by Rex Brynen, BahgatKorany and Paul Noble, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers,
Bashiriyeh, Hussein (1381[2002]), Dibacheh bar JameeShenasiyeSiyasiye Iran DoreyeJomhooriyeEslami [An introduction to political sociology of Iran, Islamic Republic Era], Tehran: NashreNegaheMoaser. (Farsi)
Bitham, David and Bowil, Quinn (1376[1997]), DemocrasiChist [Democracy], Translated by ShahramNaghshTabrizi, Tehran: EntesharateGhoghnoos. (Farsi)
Bromley, Simon (1997), “Middle East Exceptions: Myth or Reality?” in Democratization, Edited by David Potter, David Goldblatt, Margaret Kiloh and Paul Lewis, Cambridge: Polity/ Open University Press.
Brumberg, Daniel (2002),”Democratization in the Arab World? The Trap of Liberalized Autocracy,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 13, No. 4, October.
Carapico, Sheila (2002), Foreign Aid for Promoting Democracy in the Arab World, Middle East Journal, Vol. 56, No. 3.
Dalacoura, Katarina (2003), Engagement or Coercion? Weighing Western Human Rights Politics Towards Turkey, Iran and Egypt, London: The Royal Institute of International Affairs.
Dekmejian, Hrair (1377[1998]), Islam Dar Engelab [Islam in Revolution], Translated by Hamid Ahmadi, Tehran: EntesharateKeyhan. (Farsi)
Esfandiari, Haleh (ed.) (2003), Middle Eastern Women on the Move: Openings for and the Constraints on Women's Political Participation in the Middle East, Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
|
26 |
Esposito, John (1992), the Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? New York: Oxford University Press.
Fuller, Graham (2004), “Islamists in the Arab World: The Dance around Democracy”, Carnegie Papers, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, No. 49, September.
Gerges, Fawaz (1999), America and Political Islam, Cambridge.
Giddens, Anthony (1990), the Consequences of Modernity, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Giddens, Anthony (1991), Modernity and Self- Identity: Self and Society in the Late Modern Age, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Hudson, Michael (1971), Arab Politics: The Search for Legitimacy, New Haven: Yale University Press.
Hudson, Michael (1988), “State, Society and Legitimacy: An Essay on Arab Political Prospects in the 1990s” in The Next Arab Decade: Alternative Future, edited by HishamSharabi, Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, Mansell Pub.
Hudson, Michael (1995), “The Political Culture Approach to Arab Democratization: The Case for Bringing It Back In, Carefully” in Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World, Vol. 1, Edited by Rex Brynen, BahgatKorany and Paul Noble, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Hunter, Shirin (1381[2002]), “Eslamgaraee: NaghsheSiaseeyeJonbeshhayeEslamgaraa Dar KhavarmainehyeMoaser”, Translated by ParvizKarimiNaseri and Maryam Salman Yazdi, Middle East Quarterly, No. 29. (Farsi)
Huntington, Samuel (1372[1993]), “royaroeeyetamaddonha” Translated by MojtabaAmiri, EtelaateSiasiEghtesadi Monthly, No. 69-70.
(Farsi)
Huntington, Samuel (1373[1994]), mojesevomedemocrasi [The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century], Translated by Ahmad Shahsa, Tehran: EntesharateRozaneh. (Frasi)
Ibrahim, SaadEddin (1989), “The Future of Human Rights in the Arab World” in The Next Arab Decade, Alternative Futures, Edited by HishamSharabi, Boulder: Westview Press.
Ibrahim, SaadEddin (1995a), “Democratization in the Arab World” in Toward Civil Society in the Middle East, A Primer, Edited by Jillian Schwedler, London: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Ibrahim, SaadEddin (1995b), “Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World: An Overview” in Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World, Vol. 1, Edited by Rex Brynen, BahgatKorany and Paul Noble, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Ibrahim, SaadEddin Ibrahim (1997), “The Troubled Triangle: Populism, Islam and Civil Society in the Arab World” in Islam in a Changing World, Europe and the Middle East, Edited by Anders Jerichow and Jorgen BaekSimonsen, Surrey: Curzon Press.
Kazemi, Farhad and Norton, Augustus Richard (1383[2004]), “ChaleshhayeSiasiyeDolathayekhavarmianeh Dar GharneBistoYekom” in ChehryeJadideAmniat Dar Khavarmianeh [New Frontiers in the Middle East], Edited by Lenore G. Martin, Translated by GhadirNasri, Tehran: EntesharatePazhoheshkadeyeMotaleateRahbordi. (Farsi)
Kepel, Gilles (1994), Revenge of God: The Resurgence of Islam, Christianity and Judaism in the Modern World, Translated by Alan Braley, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Korany, Bahgat (1998), “Restricted Democratization from above: Egypt” in Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World, Vol. 2, Edited by BahgatKorany, Rex Brynen and Paul Noble, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Korany, Bahgat and Noble, Paul (1998), “Introduction: Arab Liberalization and Democratization – The Dialectics of the General and Specific” in Political Liberalization and Democratization in the Arab World, Vol. 2, Edited by BahgatKorany, Rex Brynen and Paul Noble, Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Leftwich, Adrian (1996), “On the Primacy of Politics in Development” in Democracy and Development, Theory and Practice, Edited by Adrian Leftwich, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Lewis, Bernard (1993), “Islam and Liberal Democracy,” The Atlantic Monthly, Vol. 271, No. 2, February.
|
27 |
Linz, Juan and Stepan, Alfred (1996), Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America and Post- Communist Europe, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
MasoumZadehKiaee, Mir Ahmad (1381[2002]), “jahaneeshodan: Estelzamatvachaleshha [Globalization and challenges]”, Political and International Approaches, No. 3. (Farsi)
Milbrath, Lester and Goel, M. Lal, (1977), Political Participation: How and why do People get involved in Politics?University of America.
Murphy, Emma (1383[2004]), “EslahateEghtesadivaDoolat Dar Toones” in Doolat VA TahavvoleJahani, aeadited by Hassan Hakimian and ZibaMoshaver, Translated by Abbas HatamiZadeh, Tehran: EntesharateKavir. (Farsi)
Norton, Augustus Richard (1993), “The Future of Civil Society in the Middle East,” The Middle East Journal, Vol. 47, No. 2, spring.
O'Donnell, Guillermo (1992), ”Transitions, Continuities and Paradoxes” in Issues in Democratic Consolidation: The New South American Democracies in Comparative Perspective, Edited by Scott Mainwaring, Guillermo O'Donnell and Samuel Valenzuela, Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press.
Ottaway, Marina (2003), Democracy Challenged, The Rise of Semi- Authoritarianism, Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
Parry, G. (ed.) (1977), Participation in Politics, Manchester University Press.
Pipes, Daniel (2000), “Islam and Islamism: Faith and Ideology,” The National Interest, Issue 59, spring.
Plattner, Marc (2002), “Globalization and Self- Government,” Journal of Democracy, Vol. 13, No. 3, July.
|
28 |
Przeworski, Adam (1991), Democracy and Market: Political and Economic Reforms in Eastern Europe and Latin America, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Rush, Michael (1377[1998]),JameevaSiasat [Politics and Society, an introduction to political sociology], Translated by ManouchehrSabouri, Tehran: EntesharateSamt. (Farsi)
Sharabi, Hisham (1380[2001]), PedarSalariyeJadid [Neopatriarchy: a theory of distorted change in Arab Society], Translated by Ahmad Movassaghi, Tehran: EntesharateKavir. (Farsi)
Sklar, Richard (1996), “Towards a Theory of
Development Democracy” in Democracy and Development, Theory and Practice, Edited by Adrian Leftwich, Cambridge: Polity Press.
Tibi, Bassam (2001), Islam between Culture and Politics, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Tibi,Bassam (1385[2006]), “EslamVaDemocrcy Dar Jahane Arab”, Translated by AsgarGhahremanpoor, Tehran: Imam Sadegh University. (Farsi)
Zatman, William (1988), “Opposition as Support of the State” in Beyond Coertion; The Durability of the Arab State, Edited by AdeedDawisha and William Zartman, London: Croom Helm.
