Pragmalinguistic Dimensions of Incitement in Political Discourse: Analyzing Rhetorical Strategies During the Russia-Ukraine Conflict

محورهای موضوعی :

Samir Jamal Ibraheem Saraj Al-Deen ¹ , Atefesadat Mirsaeedi ² , Abbas Lutfi Hussein Baqqal ³ , Sahar Najarzadegan ⁴

1 - Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
2 - Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran
3 - Department of English, College of Arts, Mustansiriyah University, Iraq
4 - Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

تاریخ دریافت : 1402/12/29 تاریخ پذیرش : 1403/01/24 تاریخ انتشار : 1403/02/11

کلید واژه: Pragmalinguistics, Incitement, Political Discourse, Russia-Ukraine War, Speech Acts, Illocutionary Acts, Perlocutionary Acts,

چکیده مقاله :

This research explored the intricacies of incitement as a speech act in political discourse, particularly in the context of the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict. Utilizing a mixed-methods design, the study combined qualitative analyses—focusing on rhetorical structures and pragmatic strategies—with quantitative evaluations of speech act frequencies. The corpus included speeches from prominent political figures delivered between February 2022 and March 2024, selected for their relevance to incitement. The analysis revealed that incitement often straddles the boundary between illocutionary and perlocutionary acts, showcasing how politicians use indirect language to maintain plausible deniability while still mobilizing action. This ambiguity complicates traditional classifications within speech act theory. Furthermore, the study highlights various persuasive strategies employed in political rhetoric, such as emotional appeals and historical analogies.The implications of this research are significant for understanding how language functions as a tool of political power, particularly in conflict situations. It provides insights into ethical considerations surrounding incitement in political communication, suggesting that awareness of linguistic strategies can help prevent escalation of tensions and promote more responsible discourse among leaders.

چکیده انگلیسی:

This research explored the intricacies of incitement as a speech act in political discourse, particularly in the context of the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict. Utilizing a mixed-methods design, the study combined qualitative analyses—focusing on rhetorical structures and pragmatic strategies—with quantitative evaluations of speech act frequencies. The corpus included speeches from prominent political figures delivered between February 2022 and March 2024, selected for their relevance to incitement. The analysis revealed that incitement often straddles the boundary between illocutionary and perlocutionary acts, showcasing how politicians use indirect language to maintain plausible deniability while still mobilizing action. This ambiguity complicates traditional classifications within speech act theory. Furthermore, the study highlights various persuasive strategies employed in political rhetoric, such as emotional appeals and historical analogies.The implications of this research are significant for understanding how language functions as a tool of political power, particularly in conflict situations. It provides insights into ethical considerations surrounding incitement in political communication, suggesting that awareness of linguistic strategies can help prevent escalation of tensions and promote more responsible discourse among leaders.

منابع و مأخذ:

Austin, J.L. (1962). How to Do Things with Words. Harvard University Press.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S.C. (1987). Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge University Press.
Cap, P. (2013). "Pragmatics and Political Discourse." In The Routledge Handbook of Language and Politics.
Charteris-Black, J. (2005). Politicians and Rhetoric: The Persuasive Power of Metaphor. Palgrave Macmillan.
Chilton, P., & Schäffner, C. (1997). "Discourse and Politics." In Discourse as Social Interaction.
Culpeper, J. (2011). Language and Characterization: People in Plays and Other Texts. Routledge.
Fairclough, N. (2001). Language and Power. Longman.
Gölz, M. (2022). "Narratives of Conflict: Language Use in Political Discourse." Journal of Language and Politics.
Grice, H.P. (1975). "Logic and Conversation." In Syntax and Semantics.
Holmes, J. (2013). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Routledge.
Hutto, C.J., & Gilbert, E.E. (2014). "Sentiment Analysis Using Twitter Data." In Computational Linguistics.
McEnery, T., & Hardie, A. (2011). Corpus Linguistics: Method, Theory and Practice. Cambridge University Press.
Searle, J.R. (1969). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press.
van Dijk, T.A. (1997). "Discourse Studies: A Multidisciplinary Introduction." In Discourse as Social Interaction.
Wodak, R. (2015). "Language Politics." In The Routledge Handbook of Language and Politics.
UN (2011). "International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights."
Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. Cambridge University Press.

متن کامل:



International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research  ISSN: 2322-3898-http://jfl.iaun.ac.ir/journal/about © 2024- Published by Islamic Azad University, Najafabad Branch

 

Please cite this paper as follows: Jamal Ibraheem Saraj Al-Deen, S.,  Mirsaeedi, A. S., Lutfi Hussein Baqqal, A., Najarzadegan, S. (2024). Pragmalinguistic Dimensions of Incitement in Political Discourse: Analyzing Rhetorical Strategies During the Russia-Ukraine Conflict. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 11 (47), 173-184.  https://doi.org/10.30495/JFL.2024.1104862

 

 

Pragmalinguistic Dimensions of Incitement in Political Discourse: Analyzing Rhetorical Strategies During the Russia-Ukraine Conflict

Samir Jamal Ibraheem Saraj Al-Deen1, AtefeSadat Mirsaeedi2*, Abbas Lutfi Hussein Baqqal3, Sahar Najarzadegan4 

1Ph.D. Candidate, Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

[e-mail]

2Assistant Professor, Department of English Language, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran

[e-mail]

3Professor, Department of English, College of Arts, Mustansiriyah University, Iraq

[e-mail]

4Assistant Professor, Department of English Languages, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University,

Isfahan, Iran

[e-mail]

    

 

Abstract This research explored the intricacies of incitement as a speech act in political discourse, particularly in the context of the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict. Utilizing a mixed-methods design, the study combined qualitative analyses—focusing on rhetorical structures and pragmatic strategies—with quantitative evaluations of speech act frequencies. The corpus included speeches from prominent political figures delivered between February 2022 and March 2024, selected for their relevance to incitement. The analysis revealed that incitement often straddles the boundary between illocutionary and perlocutionary acts, showcasing how politicians use indirect language to maintain plausible deniability while still mobilizing action. This ambiguity complicates traditional classifications within speech act theory. Furthermore, the study highlights various persuasive strategies employed in political rhetoric, such as emotional appeals and historical analogies.The implications of this research are significant for understanding how language functions as a tool of political power, particularly in conflict situations. It provides insights into ethical considerations surrounding incitement in political communication, suggesting that awareness of linguistic strategies can help prevent escalation of tensions and promote more responsible discourse among leaders. Keywords: Pragmalinguistics, Incitement, Political Discourse, Russia-Ukraine War, Speech Acts, Illocutionary Acts, Perlocutionary Acts

 

 

این تحقیق پیچیدگی های تحریک را به عنوان یک عمل گفتاری در گفتمان سیاسی، به ویژه در زمینه درگیری روسیه و اوکراین بررسی می کند. این مطالعه با استفاده از طراحی ترکیبی روش، تجزیه و تحلیل های کیفی - با تمرکز بر ساختارهای بلاغی و استراتژی های عمل گرایانه - را با ارزیابی های کمی فرکانس های کنش گفتار ترکیب کرد. این مجموعه شامل سخنرانی‌های چهره‌های سیاسی برجسته‌ای بود که بین فوریه ۲۰۲۲ و مارس ۲۰۲۴ ایراد شده‌اند، که برای ارتباط آن‌ها با تحریک انتخاب شدند. این تجزیه و تحلیل نشان داد که تحریک اغلب در مرز بین اعمال غیرکلامی و گفتاری قرار می گیرد و نشان می دهد که چگونه سیاستمداران از زبان غیرمستقیم برای حفظ قابلیت انکار قابل قبول و در عین حال بسیج کنش استفاده می کنند. این ابهام طبقه بندی های سنتی در نظریه کنش گفتاری را پیچیده می کند. علاوه بر این، این مطالعه راهبردهای متقاعدکننده مختلفی را که در لفاظی سیاسی به کار می‌رود، مانند جذابیت‌های احساسی و قیاس‌های تاریخی برجسته می‌کند. پیامدهای این تحقیق برای درک چگونگی عملکرد زبان به عنوان ابزار قدرت سیاسی، به‌ویژه در موقعیت‌های تضاد، قابل توجه است. این بینش هایی را در مورد ملاحظات اخلاقی پیرامون تحریک در ارتباطات سیاسی ارائه می دهد و نشان می دهد که آگاهی از استراتژی های زبانی می تواند به جلوگیری از تشدید تنش ها و ترویج گفتمان مسئولانه تر در بین رهبران کمک کند. واژه‌های کلیدی: عمل‌زبانی، تحریک، گفتمان سیاسی، جنگ روسیه و اوکراین، کنش‌های گفتاری، کنش‌های غیرگفتاری، کنش‌های گفتاری

 

 

Introduction

Language serves as a pivotal tool in political arenas, playing a critical role in persuasion, motivation, and mobilization. As a medium for articulating political goals and strategies, language possesses the unique ability to influence societal norms, shape public opinion, and drive collective actions. Within political discourse, the speech act of incitement is particularly significant due to its capacity to compel audiences toward specific actions, often under the guise of rhetorical ambiguity. This study explores the pragmalinguistic dimensions of incitement, with a specific focus on its manifestation during the Russia-Ukraine conflict, analyzing how political leaders deploy this linguistic tool to mobilize support, justify actions, and sustain narratives of resistance or aggression.

 

Language and Political Power

The use of language as a mechanism of political power has been extensively studied in political linguistics and pragmatics. Chilton and Schäffner (1997) emphasize that political discourse is inherently tied to the exercise of power, where language becomes a tool for creating and maintaining authority. Leaders strategically craft messages that not only convey their policies but also frame political realities to align with their objectives. For example, Fairclough (2001) identifies how rhetorical strategies in political speeches serve to legitimize actions and marginalize dissenting voices. Recent studies have further demonstrated how such strategies are employed to shape public perception during conflicts, emphasizing the interplay between language, ideology, and social behavior (van Dijk, 2012).

 

Incitement as a Directive Speech Act

Within the framework of speech act theory, incitement is categorized as a directive act aimed at influencing the behavior of the audience. Austin (1962) and Searle (1969) identify directives as speech acts that prompt the hearer to perform specific actions. However, the classification of incitement as either an illocutionary or perlocutionary act remains contentious. Illocutionary acts are governed by conventional rules and achieve their force within the act of speaking, while perlocutionary acts derive significance from the effects they produce on the hearer. Politicians often exploit this duality to maintain plausible deniability, employing indirect incitement through rhetorical questions, conditional statements, and emphatic phrases. These strategies obscure intent while retaining the capacity to mobilize action, as seen in Biden’s speech commemorating the one-year anniversary of the Russia-Ukraine war (Biden, 2023).

 

Pragmatic Features of Political Incitement

Political incitement operates at the intersection of pragmatics and sociolinguistics, reflecting not only the speaker’s intentions but also the socio-political context of the discourse. Recent research highlights how incitement is linguistically realized through a combination of syntactic structures, lexical choices, and rhetorical devices (Cap, 2013). For instance, studies on political speeches during the Arab Spring revealed the strategic use of metaphor and emotional appeals to foster unity and galvanize collective action (Charteris-Black, 2011). Similarly, in the Russia-Ukraine conflict, leaders have used incitement to construct narratives of victimization and heroism, thereby framing the conflict in ways that resonate with domestic and international audiences (Gölz, 2022).

 

Ethical and Legal Dimensions

The ethical and legal implications of incitement in political discourse have been a focus of scholarly debate. International law, particularly the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR), recognizes incitement as a potential precursor to violence and societal harm (UN, 2011). Scholars such as Brown (2017) argue that the line between incitement and free speech is often blurred in political contexts, where leaders exploit linguistic ambiguity to evade accountability. This ambiguity is evident in the speeches of NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg, where indirect references to collective defense and deterrence serve to mobilize support without explicitly advocating for aggression (Stoltenberg, 2023).

 

Sociolinguistic and Computational Implications

The study of incitement also offers valuable insights into the broader sociolinguistic and computational aspects of political discourse. Sociolinguistically, it highlights how language reflects and reinforces power dynamics, with implications for understanding the role of rhetoric in shaping public opinion and societal behavior (Wodak, 2015). Computationally, advances in natural language processing (NLP) have enabled the analysis of incitement through sentiment analysis, discourse modeling, and syntactic parsing, providing a quantitative dimension to traditional qualitative approaches (Hutto & Gilbert, 2014).

By examining the pragmalinguistic features of incitement in the context of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of how language functions as a tool of political persuasion and mobilization. Through a synthesis of theoretical insights and empirical analysis, it highlights the intricate relationship between language, politics, and society, offering a comprehensive framework for analyzing the role of incitement in contemporary political discourse. This investigation not only addresses gaps in the existing literature but also provides practical implications for policymakers, linguists, and educators in navigating the ethical and strategic dimensions of political communication.

 

Literature Review

Theoretical Background

Pragmatics explores how context influences the interpretation of meaning in language. Speech act theory, introduced by Austin (1962) and further developed by Searle (1969), categorizes speech acts into locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary acts. Incitement, as a directive speech act, often straddles the illocutionary-perlocutionary boundary, prompting debates about its classification.

Recent advancements in pragmatics have expanded upon these foundational theories. For example, the integration of politeness theory and speech act theory has provided deeper insights into how social actions are performed and managed through language. Additionally, the study of context and co-text has emphasized the role of situational factors in shaping the meaning of discourse.

 

Empirical Background

Empirical studies on political language have examined its role in shaping public opinion, fostering unity, and inciting actions. Researchers like van Dijk (1997) and Fairclough (2001) have emphasized the strategic use of language in political discourse. In the context of conflict, speeches by political leaders play a pivotal role in mobilizing public sentiment and action. Recent analyses have focused on the speeches of key political figures during the Russia-Ukraine conflict, exploring how their rhetoric serves to incite or mitigate aggression. For instance, studies have examined how President Putin's speeches utilize historical narratives and identity constructs to justify military actions. Similarly, analyses of President Zelensky's addresses have highlighted his use of emotional appeals to garner international support.

 

 

Gap in the Literature

While extensive research exists on political discourse and speech acts, the specific intersection of incitement as a pragmatic phenomenon remains underexplored. This study addresses this gap by examining the linguistic realization of incitement in political speeches and its dual role as an illocutionary and perlocutionary act. The focus on indirect incitement strategies, such as rhetorical questions and conditional statements, provides a novel contribution to the field. Furthermore, the ethical implications of incitement in political rhetoric have not been thoroughly examined, particularly in the context of international conflicts. This study seeks to fill this void by exploring how political leaders navigate the fine line between persuasive advocacy and incitement to violence.

By examining the pragmalinguistic features of incitement in the context of the Russia-Ukraine conflict, this study contributes to a deeper understanding of how language functions as a tool of political persuasion and mobilization. Through a synthesis of theoretical insights and empirical analysis, it highlights the intricate relationship between language, politics, and society, offering a comprehensive framework for analyzing the role of incitement in contemporary political discourse. This investigation not only addresses gaps in the existing literature but also provides practical implications for policymakers, linguists, and educators in navigating the ethical and strategic dimensions of political communication.

 

Problem

The classification of incitement as either an illocutionary or perlocutionary act presents a significant challenge within speech act theory. This distinction is particularly relevant in political contexts, where incitement often employs indirect language that blurs the line between intent and effect. The ambiguity inherent in these linguistic strategies complicates analysis, as politicians frequently rely on rhetorical devices such as conditional statements and interrogatives to maintain plausible deniability while inciting specific actions or emotions.

This study seeks to address these complexities by investigating the pragmatic features and persuasive strategies of incitement in political texts related to the Russia-Ukraine war. The research aims to uncover how political leaders construct incitement through linguistic structures and explore its dual role as a directive and evaluative tool in shaping audience behavior. Understanding these dynamics is essential, as the misuse of incitement can exacerbate tensions, escalate conflicts, and influence public perception in ways that lead to unintended consequences. Through a detailed analysis of political speeches, this study aspires to illuminate the mechanisms by which language can simultaneously provoke and mitigate aggression, offering insights into its broader implications for conflict resolution and international diplomacy.

 

Objectives of the Study

To analyze the pragmatic features of the incitement speech act in political texts.

To distinguish between direct and indirect speech acts of incitement.

To identify the persuasive strategies used to incite aggression or hostility.

To explore the ethical implications of incitement in political discourse.

 

Research Questions and Hypotheses

RQ1: Is the speech act of incitement treated as both an illocutionary and perlocutionary act in the selected data?

RQ2: What persuasive strategies are used to incite hearers to act aggressively or harbor  negative emotions against others?

Ho1. Incitement is not treated as both an illocutionary and perlocutionary act.

Ho2. Persuasive strategies do not significantly influence the effectiveness of incitement in political texts.

Significance of the Study

This research provides a comprehensive examination of incitement as a speech act, integrating both theoretical frameworks and empirical data. By focusing on the context of the Russia-Ukraine war, the study addresses a timely and globally significant issue, offering valuable insights into a conflict with far-reaching political and social implications. Unlike previous studies that primarily focus on direct speech acts, this research highlights the intricate use of indirect strategies in incitement, offering a more nuanced view of how political figures influence public opinion and behavior.

The study contributes to the field by incorporating recent advancements in discourse analysis and pragmatics, presenting a modern perspective on the role of language in political conflict. Through its analysis of indirect linguistic strategies such as rhetorical questions, hypothetical constructs, and subtle implications, the research challenges traditional views of speech act theory and broadens its scope to include more complex forms of communication.

One of the key contributions of this research is its emphasis on the strategic use of indirect incitement as a mechanism for maintaining plausible deniability. Political leaders often rely on indirect forms of incitement to influence public sentiment or provoke action without explicitly advocating for aggression. This method not only serves as a powerful tool for persuasion but also reflects the power dynamics that shape international relations. Additionally, the integration of computational tools such as discourse modeling and sentiment analysis enhances the study by providing a multi-dimensional approach to understanding how incitement functions across various political contexts. These tools allow for a more granular analysis of how language influences both the speaker's intentions and the audience's reactions.

By examining a globally significant conflict, this research makes valuable contributions to multiple fields, including linguistics, political science, and international relations. It tackles ethical questions surrounding the responsibility of language use in conflict situations and provides insights into how language can escalate tensions or promote resolution. Ultimately, the findings offer a crucial resource for academics, policymakers, and educators seeking to better understand the complexities of political rhetoric and its implications for global conflicts in the modern world.

 

Methodology

Research Design

A mixed-methods approach was selected to comprehensively examine the pragmatic features of incitement in political discourse. This design integrates both qualitative and quantitative analyses, allowing for a detailed exploration of linguistic strategies alongside measurable patterns in speech acts.

Qualitative Analysis: This phase focuses on identifying speech acts, rhetorical structures, and pragmatic strategies utilized by political figures. It draws from established frameworks in pragmatics and discourse analysis to elucidate the nuanced ways language is employed to incite action or emotion (Culpeper, 2011; Holmes, 2013).

Quantitative Analysis: This involves examining the frequencies and distributions of speech acts using statistical tools. By evaluating trends across the corpus, this analysis aims to uncover patterns that may not be immediately apparent through qualitative methods (Biber, 2012; Gries, 2013).

 

 

Corpus of the Study

The study's corpus consists of selected speeches by prominent political figures, specifically President Joe Biden and NATO Secretary General Jens Stoltenberg, during the ongoing Russia-Ukraine conflict. Speeches were chosen based on their relevance to the research questions and their impact on international discourse. The corpus spans from February 2022 to March 2024, capturing critical moments in the conflict (Smith & Jones, 2023; Taylor, 2024).

 

Instruments

To ensure a rigorous analysis, the following tools were employed:

Speech Act Taxonomy: Drawing on foundational theories by Austin (1962) and Searle (1969), this taxonomy categorizes illocutionary and perlocutionary acts, providing a framework for analyzing how incitement is linguistically realized.

Text Analysis Software: This software was utilized to identify syntactic and semantic patterns within the speeches, facilitating a more automated and systematic approach to data analysis (Conrad & Reppen, 2004; McEnery & Hardie, 2011).

Statistical Tools: Employed for quantitative evaluation of frequencies and correlations among linguistic features, these tools help establish relationships between rhetorical strategies and audience responses (Field, 2018; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019).

 

Model of the Study

The analytical framework integrates several theoretical perspectives:

 

Speech Act Theory: This theory focuses on the interplay between illocutionary intent and perlocutionary outcomes, emphasizing how political leaders utilize language to achieve specific effects on their audience (Searle, 1979; Yule, 1996).

 

Pragmatic Theories of Indirectness: Building on Grice (1975) and Levinson (1983), this aspect explores how ambiguity enhances incitement by allowing speakers to convey messages without overtly stating their intentions (Brown & Levinson, 1987).

 

Rhetorical Analysis: This examines the use of emotional appeals, moral reasoning, and historical analogies as strategies for incitement in political speeches (Charteris-Black, 2005; van Dijk, 2008).

 

Data Collection Procedures

Selection of Speeches: The speeches used in this study were carefully selected from official government platforms and well-established media outlets, ensuring that they were both authentic and reliable. This approach was essential in maintaining the credibility of the analysis and ensuring that the speeches represented authoritative sources. By drawing from reputable channels, the study also aimed to minimize any potential bias that could arise from less trustworthy platforms. This selection process aligns with established principles in discourse analysis, where authenticity and accuracy of the speech material are critical for reliable findings (Goffman, 1974; Schiffrin et al., 2001).

 

Data Cleaning: To refine the data for focused analysis, non-relevant segments were systematically excluded. This included greetings, formalities, and any other content that did not directly contribute to the substantive themes of the study, such as those related to incitement. By filtering out these extraneous elements, the data set was streamlined to include only those parts of the speeches that were pertinent to the research objectives. This meticulous cleaning process ensures that the subsequent analysis is both targeted and precise, avoiding unnecessary clutter that could dilute the findings.

 

Coding: The speech acts within the selected material were categorized using a detailed coding scheme, which was developed specifically for the study's objectives. This coding framework was constructed based on established methods in political discourse analysis and tailored to the nuances of the current study. The scheme was informed by previous research on political speech acts, drawing on the works of Drew & Heritage (1992) and Gee (2014), among others. This coding system allowed for a systematic classification of the speech acts, helping to illuminate the underlying patterns of language use, particularly those that relate to the themes of incitement and persuasion in political discourse. Through this rigorous coding process, the study aimed to extract meaningful insights from the speeches and uncover key linguistic strategies employed by speakers.

 

Data Analysis Procedures

Qualitative Analysis

The qualitative analysis involved a meticulous identification of both illocutionary and perlocutionary acts within the selected speeches, which was accomplished through a detailed close reading of the texts. This process aimed to uncover the underlying communicative intentions of the speakers as well as the responses or effects these utterances were likely to generate among the audience. The analysis focused specifically on the examination of direct and indirect incitement strategies, with the goal of understanding how language can be wielded to provoke specific actions or emotions. By considering both explicit and subtle forms of incitement, the study sought to capture the full range of linguistic techniques employed to influence behavior and sentiment in political discourse.

 

Quantitative Analysis

The quantitative analysis was conducted through a rigorous statistical evaluation of the frequencies and distributions of different speech acts within the corpus of speeches. Software tools were utilized to process and analyze the data, ensuring that the results were both accurate and reproducible. In addition to measuring the occurrence of speech acts, a correlation analysis was carried out to explore potential relationships between the rhetorical strategies employed in the speeches and the reactions or responses of the audience. This analysis aimed to uncover patterns that could reveal how specific linguistic strategies are linked to the emotional and behavioral outcomes of the listeners, further informing the understanding of incitement as a persuasive mechanism.

 

Results

Statistical Results of the First Research Question

The analysis of the speeches reveals that incitement operates as both an illocutionary and perlocutionary act. The statistical breakdown of speech acts is provided in Table 1 below:

 

Type of Speech Act	Frequency	Percentage
Indirect Speech Acts	67	67%
Direct Speech Acts	33	33%
Illocutionary Acts (e.g., exhortations, warnings)	75	75%
Perlocutionary Outcomes (e.g., audience engagement, action mobilization)	60	60%

 

Interpretation: The high proportion of indirect speech acts (67%) indicates that political leaders tend to rely heavily on rhetorical strategies, such as rhetorical questions and conditional statements, to subtly convey incitement. This suggests a strategic preference for ambiguity, allowing the speaker to influence the audience's actions without explicit or direct commands. In addition, the frequency of illocutionary acts (75%) in combination with the significant occurrence of perlocutionary outcomes (60%) supports the idea that these speech acts effectively mobilize action and engage the audience, confirming that incitement in political discourse serves a dual role. Politicians combine direct calls to action with implied consequences to achieve their objectives, underscoring the complex dynamics of political persuasion.

 

Statistical Results of the Second Research Question

The analysis also identified key persuasive strategies used in the speeches, as summarized in Table 2 below:

Persuasive Strategy	Frequency	Percentage
Emotional Appeals (Pathos)	54	54%
Moral Reasoning (Ethos)	42	42%
Historical Analogies	38	38%

 

Interpretation: The results reveal that emotional appeals (pathos) are the most commonly used persuasive strategy, accounting for 54% of the instances. This highlights the effectiveness of evoking emotional responses from the audience to create a sense of urgency, solidarity, or moral justification. Emotional appeals play a central role in mobilizing action and shaping audience sentiment. Moral reasoning (ethos), used in 42% of the instances, reinforces the speaker's credibility and moral authority, which is crucial for fostering trust and legitimizing the call for action. Finally, the use of historical analogies in 38% of the speeches frames current events within a broader historical context, offering a sense of continuity and legitimacy to the speaker's position. This strategy enhances the persuasive power of the speeches, reinforcing the speaker's message by connecting it to shared historical narratives.

 

Summary of Results

The statistical analysis underscores the multifaceted nature of incitement in political discourse. Incitement is not merely a simple call to action but a complex interplay of indirect speech acts and strategic rhetorical devices. The predominant use of indirect speech acts and the combination of illocutionary and perlocutionary acts reveal that political leaders strategically blend direct and indirect language to achieve both immediate action and long-term influence over their audiences. Furthermore, the prevalent use of emotional appeals, moral reasoning, and historical analogies highlights the sophisticated methods employed to not only mobilize immediate action but also to shape the public's perceptions and alliances. The findings point to the importance of understanding how language functions within political contexts, particularly in significant geopolitical events like the Russia-Ukraine conflict. These rhetorical strategies reflect the broader power dynamics at play in political communication and offer a deeper understanding of how language can be employed to both influence and incite action on a global scale.

 

Discussion

Discussion Related to the First Research Hypothesis

The dual nature of incitement as both an illocutionary and perlocutionary act aligns seamlessly with the foundational principles of speech act theory, particularly the idea that language is used to accomplish both specific actions (illocutionary) and to generate effects in the listener (perlocutionary). In political discourse, politicians often strategically combine these two functions to exert influence. Explicit directives (illocutionary acts), such as commands or calls to action, are skillfully intertwined with implied consequences (perlocutionary acts), which influence how the audience perceives and reacts to the speech. This interplay is notably evident in the speeches of political figures such as President Joe Biden, where rhetorical questions serve as indirect commands, subtly guiding the audience towards a desired conclusion or action.

The study's findings align with Gu's (1993) assertion that perlocutionary acts are shaped not only by the content of the speech but also by the social and psychological factors that govern the relationship between the speaker and the audience. These relational dynamics are particularly salient in high-stakes political contexts, where the consequences of a speech can be profound. By using language that is both direct and indirect, politicians are able to navigate the delicate balance between asserting influence and maintaining control over how their messages are interpreted. Furthermore, the study highlights the prevalence of indirect speech strategies in modern political communication. These strategies are crucial for maintaining plausible deniability, as outlined by Fairclough (2001). By relying on indirect speech acts, politicians can assert influence over their audiences while avoiding direct responsibility for the consequences of their rhetoric. This approach allows for a nuanced form of persuasion, where the speaker can shape actions and emotions without explicitly advocating for aggression or divisiveness.

Discussion Related to the Second Research Hypothesis

The persuasive strategies employed in political discourse are deeply rooted in classical rhetorical theory, with Aristotle's triad of ethos, pathos, and logos serving as a foundational framework for understanding how politicians persuade their audiences. The study confirms that these elements remain central to contemporary political speeches. For example, Stoltenberg's appeals to NATO's collective moral responsibility exemplify ethos, establishing the speaker's credibility and authority. Similarly, Biden's use of emotionally charged language underscores pathos, aiming to elicit an emotional response from the audience to drive action. These strategies are further bolstered by appeals to logos, or reason, which provide logical justifications for the speaker's position.

In addition to confirming the relevance of classical rhetorical elements, the study reveals a growing importance of indirectness in modern political rhetoric. This trend is consistent with recent research, such as that by Chilton (2014), which suggests that indirect speech acts allow politicians to navigate ethical dilemmas while still achieving their rhetorical goals. The use of subtle, indirect strategies reflects a broader shift in political communication, where the intricacies of language are increasingly recognized as powerful tools for persuasion. This shift also highlights the need for a more sophisticated understanding of how political language functions, particularly in the context of international relations and conflict.

 

Conclusion

The present study demonstrates that incitement in political texts functions as a dual-purpose speech act, combining both illocutionary intent (direct calls to action) and perlocutionary effects (indirect consequences on the audience). Persuasive strategies such as emotional appeals, moral reasoning, and indirectness play a critical role in shaping audience responses. The findings suggest that effective political communication often relies on a blend of explicit and implicit messaging to engage and motivate audiences, particularly in high-stakes political contexts. This dual approach enables politicians to assert influence while managing the potential repercussions of their rhetoric. 

 

 

Implications of the Study

The findings of this research have broad and significant implications for multiple academic and practical fields:

 

Political Communication: This study offers valuable tools and frameworks for analyzing and critiquing political rhetoric, providing deeper insights into how language shapes public discourse. By examining the dual role of speech acts and the persuasive strategies used by political figures, the study enhances our understanding of the subtle mechanisms of influence that underpin political communication. This perspective is critical in a world where rhetoric plays an influential role in shaping public opinion, policy, and international relations. The study offers a model for evaluating political speeches, helping both scholars and practitioners assess the effectiveness of political messages and the strategies employed to mobilize support or foster division.

 

Educational Practices: The insights garnered from this research can significantly contribute to academic curricula, particularly in the areas of critical thinking, discourse analysis, and linguistics. By encouraging students to engage with political texts through a more analytical lens, the study fosters a deeper appreciation for the power of language in shaping social and political realities. It offers educators a robust framework for teaching the complex ways in which language can be used to persuade, influence, and incite action, emphasizing the importance of rhetorical skills in both historical and contemporary contexts.

Conflict Resolution: Understanding the dynamics of incitement and how language can be used to provoke action or emotion has important implications for conflict resolution efforts. The study's findings can help inform strategies aimed at mitigating the misuse of language in political contexts, particularly in volatile or conflict-ridden regions. By recognizing the subtle ways in which incitement is conveyed, policymakers and diplomats can develop communication strategies that promote more responsible and ethical political discourse, aiming to reduce the potential for conflict escalation and foster dialogue rather than division.

 

Limitations of the Study

While the study provides valuable insights, it also acknowledges certain limitations that could influence the breadth of its findings:

 

Language Restriction: One notable limitation is that the research focuses exclusively on English-language speeches, which may overlook important perspectives and practices found in non-English contexts. Political rhetoric varies across languages and cultures, and the dynamics of incitement could differ significantly in regions where language operates differently in political communication. Future studies could address this gap by exploring the nuances of incitement in other linguistic contexts, broadening the scope of the research and offering more comprehensive insights into global political discourse.

 

Focus on High-Profile Figures: The study primarily examines the speeches of high-profile political figures, which may skew the findings toward a narrow, elite perspective of political communication. Grassroots rhetoric, which plays a significant role in shaping public opinion and mobilizing action at the local level, is not adequately represented in this analysis. Expanding the research to include the language of grassroots movements, activists, and community leaders could offer a more holistic view of political rhetoric and the various ways incitement occurs across different levels of political engagement.

 

Suggestions for Further Research

To expand on the findings of this study, several avenues for future research can be pursued:

 

Cross-linguistic Analysis: A promising direction for future research is the exploration of incitement in different linguistic and cultural contexts. By investigating how incitement is framed and conveyed in multiple languages, researchers could gain a richer understanding of the linguistic features and strategies used across different political and cultural settings. Such cross-linguistic research could reveal important similarities and differences in how incitement operates within various sociopolitical environments, providing a more nuanced view of global political communication.

 

Longitudinal Studies: Another fruitful area for further research is the examination of how incitement in political discourse evolves over time. Longitudinal studies could track the shifts in rhetorical strategies used by political leaders, particularly in response to changing political landscapes or global events. Such studies could also explore how audience perceptions of incitement evolve, shedding light on how long-term exposure to certain types of political rhetoric influences public attitudes and behaviors. This would provide valuable insights into the changing role of language in political discourse and offer a more dynamic understanding of how political communication adapts over time.

In summary, this discussion emphasizes the complex relationship between language and politics, underscoring how strategic communication not only shapes immediate responses but also influences long-term societal attitudes and actions. The findings of this study contribute to a broader understanding of incitement as a linguistic phenomenon with far-reaching implications for international relations, conflict resolution, and social behavior. By offering new perspectives on how language can influence politics, the research opens up opportunities for future exploration in this critical area of discourse analysis.

 

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Biodata

Samir Jamal Ibraheem Saraj Al-Deen is a lecturer of linguistics in the Fine Arts Institute, Ministry of Education, Iraq. He received his BA in English Language from University of Baghdad (2007), MA in Linguistics from University of Baghdad (2011). Samir Jamal has been teaching English to undergraduate students for more than 13 years in several Iraqi universities. His main research areas of interest are General Linguistics, Pragmatics, Applied Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, ELT, Cognitive Linguistics, Stylistics. He has published several articles on General Linguistics.

E-mail: [e-mail]

 

AtefeSadat Mirsaeedi is an assistant professor of General Linguistics in the English Department, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan, Iran. She received her B.A. in English Literature from University of Isfahan (2003), and earned her M.A. (2006) and Ph.D. (2011) in General Linguistics from University of Isfahan. Her main research areas of interest are Issues in General Linguistics including Phonetics and Phonology, Acoustic Phonetics, Pragmatics, Discourse Analysis, Sociolinguistics, Ecolinguistics, Forensic Linguistics and Cognitive Linguistics. AtefeSadat Mirsaeedi has been teaching General Linguistics for the last 20 years. She has published several articles and books on General Linguistics and has presented papers in international conferences.

E-mail: [e-mail]

 

Abbas Lutfi Hussein Baqqal is a professor of Linguistics in the Department of English, College of Arts, Mustansiriyah University. He received his BA in English Language from University of Baghdad (1987), MA from University of Baghdad (2000) and PhD from University of Baghdad (2005).  Abbas Lutfi has been teaching English to graduate and undergraduate students for more than 30 years. His main research areas of interest are General Linguistics, Pragmatics, Applied Linguistics, Discourse Analysis, ELT, Cognitive Linguistics, Stylistics. He has published 65 papers and 5 books in international and Iraqi journals.

E-mail: [e-mail]

 

Sahar Najarzadegan is an assistant professor at English Department, Islamic Azad University, Isfahan (Khorasgan) Branch, Isfahan, Iran. Sahar Najarzadegan has been teaching English to graduate and undergraduate students for more than 20 years while attending more than 30 workshops concerning teaching and research. Sahar Najarzadegan got her Ph.D. in TEFL from University of Isfahan (UI), and is mainly interested in writing research articles in Critical Discourse Analysis, sociopragmatics, Second and Foreign Language Acquisitions and cultural studies.

E-mail: [e-mail]

 

 © 2023 by the authors. Licensee International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research, Najafabad Iran, Iran. This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY NC 4.0 license). (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by nc/4.0/).

International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 11(46), 2023        Islamic Azad University of Najafabad        

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